Implementation of the Beijing platform for action (1997-99)

Part two: Financial and institutional measures

1 National level

The Norwegian national budget does not specify the funds spent on promoting gender equality as these funds are an integral part of the budget. Only funds for institutions dealing specifically with gender issues can be identified. The Gender Equality Ombudsman is allocated NOK 4.4 million from the Government, and the Centre for Gender Equality NOK 4.8 million.

All the ministries and relevant existing institutions have served as mechanisms for the Beijing process in Norway, as well as for the follow-up work. NGOs also participate in the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action. In connection with the preparation of the present follow-up report, all the relevant NGOs in the field of gender equality were invited to contribute to the report. Their contributions have been incorporated in the report.

2 International level

The Strategy for Women and Gender Equality focuses on rights, decision-making processes, economic participation, education, health and environment. These areas are to be given particular emphasis in all forms of development cooperation. Regarding budgets, the special women’s grant was increased in 1996 in order to fund special initiatives, such as the follow-up to the Beijing conference, and general mainstreaming of the gender perspective. Efforts to mainstream a gender perspective in all forms of development cooperation have been given priority. Allocations to education and health have increased, and this also has the added effect of strengthening the position of women.

2.1 Comments by the NGOs

2.1.1 The Centre for Gender Equality:

“Lack of gender equality standards in credit and export policies.

Norway has come quite far in mainstreaming gender equality considerations into international development cooperation. However, when it comes to programs for private sector development there is still a need for more concrete measures in this field. For instance, big resources are channeled towards Central and Eastern Europe through the regional and the Nordic development banks without any focus on – or monitoring of - gender aspects. Nobody therefore knows the respective effects of these transactions on women and men. There are reason to be concerned about the increase in sexual harassment and even prostitution, and the increase in pay gaps along gender lines, and other discriminatory practices which may follow in the path of privatization and foreign investments.

Since the Beijing conference there has been a move of resources and power in favor of the private sector of the economy all over the world. There is therefore an urgent need to work on the concretization and realization of the paragraph 58 b) in the Beijing Platform of action

One concrete measure could be the requirement that gender equality plans be an obligatory element in the portfolio for each credit transaction made by international development banks. A model for this idea might be found in the way some of these banks (EBRD is a good example) now include environmental considerations in the appraisal of each and every project.”

This page was last updated December 23, 1999 by the editors

Part three

B. Education and training of women

1 Introduction

In the course of the 90s, a number of educational reforms have influenced the educational opportunities open to women.

A comprehensive educational reform in 1994 gave 16 to 19-year-olds new rights. All higher education courses now lead to either vocational training or a university entrance exam. Studies evaluating the reform indicate that traditional gender segregation in choice of career has been reinforced during the implementation of the reform. Although statistics show that there is no difference in level of education between men and women under the age of forty, they also show that girls' and boys' choice of subjects and occupation follow the same pattern as in the 70s. Boys still choose technical subjects and natural sciences and girls choose domestic science, aesthetic subjects and the social sciences. Boys tend to choose a line of study that is more occupationally oriented, whereas girls continue to choose general studies when they reach the level of higher education.

Another reform, in 1997, implemented a new education plan for the compulsory primary school and lower secondary school, extending the period of compulsory education to ten years. A 1996 assessment of primary and lower secondary schools efforts to achieve equality showed that further measures were needed to achieve equality in schools. The new education plan, gender awareness training for teachers and the new teachers' training reform include measures to improve the situation.

2 The period 1999-2001: aims and areas of focus

2.1 Aims

One of Norway's main goals for the education sector is to promote gender equality at all levels. Training and education should aim at enabling boys and girls, women and men to have equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities within further education, family life, employment and in other areas of life. Schools should prepare them for higher education and a choice of occupation according to skills and preferences rather than traditional gender-related expectations. In the National Budget 1998-99, gender equality is specified as an important social policy aim, in order to achieve broader recruitment with respect to gender to various occupations and positions in society as a whole and the business world in particular.

Training should aim at

* raising awareness of the fact that men and women have the same right and obligation to take part in the development of society, and to take responsibility for decisions made * raising awareness of the causes and types of gender discrimination and their impact * encouraging and preparing girls and boys to choose further education on the basis of individual skills and preferences, which will in turn lay the foundation for greater equality in choice of occupation * ensuring that boys and girls always have the same opportunities to participate in new sectors of development, such as ICT

2.2 Challenges

In the efforts to promote gender equality, we now face a number of challenges, especially:

* demographic changes * new technology and new types of media * alterations in the labour market * changes in social structures and values * internationalization and globalization

2.3 Problem sectors and choice of direction

During the period 1999-2001, the following areas will receive priority:

* Mathematics, the natural sciences, technology and gender equality * Non-traditional educational and occupational choices for girls and boys * Women in the academic sphere * Gender equality in the new teachers' training reform * Gender equality in the authority reform * Gender equality in primary and secondary education * Gender equality within the Church of Norway * Gender equality as part of the attitude-related work against violence

2.3.1 ICT and gender

The Ministry is focusing special attention on information and communication technology, particularly in relation to girls. Consumer surveys (from 1995) show that girls in primary and secondary schools make less use of computers than boys do, and that more boys than girls have a computer at home. A similar pattern was found among students at universities and colleges (National Bureau of Statistics, 1995). Whereas approximately 70% of male students had private access to a computer, the corresponding figure for female students was approximately 55%. Recruitment to what in Norway are lengthy computer studies is in keeping with the general trend: these studies are very popular among boys, but girls are virtually absent. This is despite the fact that the number of female students at the universities has greatly increased.

The same gender-related disparity is evident among teachers in primary and secondary school: far more men than women teach computer science as a subject. (The ratio is 5:1 in primary schools and approx. 3:1 in both lower secondary and higher secondary schools.)

To achieve a greater degree of gender equality, it is important to develop teaching methods that can stimulate girls' interest in information technology and increase their opportunities of participation in this important area. Research and development measures have been implemented in order to further this aim and will be followed up in the years to come.

2.3.2 Non-traditional educational and occupational choices for girls and boys

The low number of girls in traditionally male-dominated subjects and the problem of recruiting boys to domestic and health-related subjects gives cause for concern. The Ministry has therefore taken the initiative for a comprehensive three-year research and development project entitled "Informed Educational Choice", involving several county administrations and secondary schools. The project's aim is to motivate boys and girls to make informed and conscious vocational and educational choices that are widely independent of traditional gender roles, and to contribute to the creation of a labour market that is less characterised by traditional gender segregation.

2.3.3 Women at postgraduate level

In the field of academic research, one of the main aims is to increase the number of female researchers at the doctorate level. Of those who completed their doctorate in 1998, 34% were women, an increase of 25% on the 1993 figure. The proportion of research fellows who are women has also risen. The Ministry has introduced various measures in order to increase the percentage of women among those completing their doctorates. Universities are rewarded with NOK 20 000 for male graduates and NOK 30 000 for female graduates who gain doctorates (1998-99).

Within the category of senior academic positions, women are still underrepresented. Postdoctoral scholarships are used to help qualify women for leading positions in the university system in general, and specifically in fields where they are underrepresented.

3 Comments by the NGOs

3.1 The Research Council of Norway:

3.1.1 Introduction

“In terms of the work on equality in research done under the auspices of the Research Council of Norway, a special challenge lies in ensuring transparency as well as consciousness raising with regard to definitions, grounds and delimintations related to reports on and evaluations of equal status, the women’s and gender perspectives, and women’s and gender research.

3.1.2 Foundation and structure

“Through four major decisions adopted by the Executive Board, the Research Council has laid the foundation for the further development of its national responsibility for women’s and gender research and for efforts to promote equality in research. In this context, the decision embodied in the Action Plan for Equality in the R&D Sector is of paramount importance. The decision to integrate women’s and gender perspectives into the various divisions’ ongoing activities is relevant, as are two decisions involving the reorganisation of the work related to women’s and gender research.

The Research Council’s divisions are responsible for ensuring equality in the implementation of their strategic research policies. The responsibility for providing advice and co-ordination has been assigned to the Section for Feminist Research Policy. It is the responsibility of an adviser who works 40 per cent of a full-time position.

The Administrative Working Group for the Co-ordination of Women’s and Gender Research (the ASK Group) is important for the advancement of equality. The Working Group comprises representatives of the divisions of the Research Council, while the Section for Feminist Research Policy serves as secretariat for the group.

As a result of a re-organisation, KILDEN, the information and documentation centre for women’s and gender research, was formally opened on 1 March as a peripheral institution within the Research Council. KILDEN will share premises with the Gender Equality Ombud and the Centre for Gender Equality. One task shared with the latter group is the further development of electronic directories published by the Center for Women’s Research, describing the qualifications of women researchers and of women’s and gender researchers.

Through the Action Plan for Equality in the R&D sector (1999-2002), the Research Council intends to help raise the priority assigned to equality work and to further sensitise the players in the sector, as well as to focus, systematise and facilitate control of the efforts of those involved. The plan allows for variations in the way it is put into practice, and few specific objectives have been laid down. This is partly attributable to the Research Council’s advisory role and partly to differences in the knowledge base.

For all players in the R&D sector, the Action Plan recommends:

·Improving the knowledge base underpinning equality policy;·Ensuring more targeted efforts to promote equality in research and the integration of equality efforts into regular activities.

The following general measures have been recommended to the various players:

·Lay down equality policy guidelines for the R&D sector and ensure that they are followed up (Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs);·Evaluate equality measures and implement studies on women’s participation and their working situation in the R&D sector (Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs, the Research Council and the university, college and research institute sector);·Ensure that account is taken of equality policy objectives and measures at management level and in governing documents; (The Research Council, and the university, college and research institute sector);·Ensure/establish separate equality policy bodies and positions, and build networks (university and college sector, in Norway and the other Nordic countries).

As a link in the follow-up of the Action Plan, a template for making annual reports will be drawn up in 1999. Equality is already listed as a separate item in the Research Council’s annual report, but it primarily refers to the gender composition of boards, committees, etc, and the breakdown of grants and fellowships by gender. Some of the divisions have reported having equality-related research programmes and projects, as well as other equality-related measures and activities.”

3.2 The Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions (LO):

“In accordance with LO’s Programme of Action and annual Action Plans, LO has been focusing on Education and training for women:

1) Throughout the last decade, LO has been making efforts to secure legal rights to further and continuing education (EVU) for all employees. This is particularly important for the many women workers who are in unskilled or semi-skilled jobs with low wages and few opportunities for career development. The social partners and the State agree that a further and continuous education reform will be implemented. However, some work remains to be done before full agreement has been reached on all aspects of this reform, including the financing of study leave. Demands relating to this matter will be presented at the interim negotiations in 1999.2) LO announced a grant for women members wishing to attend a course on Gender and Politics at Lillehammer College. Unfortunately there were not enough applicantsto be able to arrange this course in 1998-99 and consequently no grants were awarded.

In this year’s collective bargaining the social partners and the State agreed to introduce a further and continuing training reform which gives adults, born after 1978 and who lack higher training, a new opportunity in this respect.”

3.3 The Centre for Gender Equality

“Norwegian gender research undertaken from a feminist perspective has achieved recognition on an international level both when it comes to the organization and the scientific work itself. Research on men from a gender perspective is almost completely absent in Norway today. Men’s privilege has always been an escape from a gender analysis of themselves. Women’s studies have been labeled “gender”, while men have been the social norm. Norway needs a directed effort towards more research on men, to better understand men in the gender context and what kind of role men can play in the struggle for gender equality.”

3.4 The MIRAa Centre

“The MiRA Center would like to draw the attention of the authorities towards specific gender discrimination of ethnic minority women in relation to education and employment. We are aware of the fact that the traditional gender equality discourses define gender discrimination mainly on the basis of sexuality, undermining the race and class issues. However, in the everyday life of several thousand women these factors play a central role. The ethnic minority women face difficulties related to work permits, type of jobs available, and the lack of recognition of previous academic qualifications.

We feel that the polices that aim to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women must go beyond securing equal entitlements, and must address the problems of segregation in the employment, housing and education sectors. It has to be considered that the poor living conditions of ethnic minority women in Norway are usually a result of both gender discrimination and structural disadvantages. The polices ought to combine the fight against structural causes with specific group protection against discrimination and elements of affirmative action that allow women to develop their own potential for overcoming the effects of gender discrimination and social exclusion.”

This page was last updated December 23, 1999 by the editors

C. Women and health

1 Introduction

The Ministry of Health and Social Affairs has, in the years since 1995, implemented various projects relevant to the questions raised in the Beijing Platform for Action. Throughout the 1990s, close attention has been focused on the prevention of and rehabilitation from stress-related diseases, resulting in plans of actions and pilot projects. Although a specific female perspective has not been targeted, women have been defined as a target group within these projects. Some of the initiatives have been taken in fields where women constitute the majority within particularly vulnerable groups, or where women’s health has been of explicit concern, such as smoking during pregnancy. In addition, improved measures to prevent accidental pregnancies have been taken.

2 The Government committee to review existing knowledge about women’s health

The need to strengthen remedial action in relation to women’s health has been recognised. In order to have a more informed basis for improvements, the Government appointed a committee in 1997 to review existing knowledge about women’s health in Norway. The terms of reference for the Committee include the Beijing Platform for Action. The Committee suggested to the Government how efforts in different sectors can be prioritised and co-ordinated to improve women’s health and considered whether and how gender-specific knowledge can be stored.

The Committee’s report was presented on 28 January this year. It reveals the particular importance of strengthening the gender perspective in statistics and in factual knowledge that is used as a basis for decisions and priorities in health matters. The report refers to a lack of information in several areas of relevance to women’s health, diseases and living conditions. The report also discusses central concepts and definitions that form the foundation for the analytical work of the Committee. The Committee has chosen a practical approach, based on the diseases and ailments that are most relevant to women’s health. However, it has also given importance to showing how the medical profession, its institutions and traditions tend to base descriptions of sickness and health on particular images of women – or absence of female images – and in this way negatively affect women’s health. HIV/AIDS is referred to as an issue which has to be given special attention because the spread and consequences of this disease illustrate the whole range of problems linked to power/powerlessness, gender and health. The Committee's conclusion is that it is necessary to use a gender- and age-sensitive approach in relation to this question.

The actions proposed by the Committee mainly apply to decision-making processes, the acquisition of knowledge and information-practices in health services, violence, social security arrangements and women's status in working life. Finally the Committee proposes that greater gender equality will improve women’s health.

All the proposals in the report should fulfill the intentions of the Beijing Platform for Action. The report is circulated for comment, which will lay the basis for the follow up measures proposed in the report and the further work of integrating the gender perspective into the sphere of responsibility of the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs.

3 The Plan of Action to prevent unwanted pregnancies and abortion.

The terms of reference for the Plan of Action to prevent unwanted pregnancies and abortion 1999 – 2003 are based on the results of recent research, evidence of an increase in abortions, and empirical findings from preventive projects carried out during the 1990s. The main target groups are adolescents and adults who run a high risk of unwanted pregnancy and abortion. The main areas of effort will be:

-To encourage children and adolescents to become more aware of their own bodies and sexuality. -To educate young people about cohabitation and sexuality, with a view to preparing them for life choices in this matter. -To improve access to contraceptives and to information on contraception. -To provide information on abortion and to offer guidance to women or couples who wish to follow this course of action. -To support research on unwanted pregnancies and abortion.

Prevention of unwanted pregnancies is an integrated part of primary health care.

4 Working conditions in female-dominated occupations

Since 1995, the Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development has allocated NOK 16 million to a research programme focusing mainly on working and health conditions in female-dominated occupations. One of the most important research areas has been musculo-skeletal disorders. The Ministry will continue to support this programme in the years to come. The research projects in this programme have provided very useful information about women’s work-related health problems.

The Norwegian Labour Inspection Authority, runs several campaigns each year based on risk assessment analysis. Some of these campaigns have targeted working conditions in female dominated occupations (for example hairdressers and health and social care). These campaigns provide useful information for inspection priorities.

The Ministry are also in the process of improving statistics on gender- and work-related accidents and diseases.

5 Comments by the NGOs

5.1 The Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions (LO):

“In accordance with LO’s Programme of Action and annual Action Plans, LO has been focusing on Women and health:

1) LO is taking part in the Ministry of Social Affairs’ working environment project on women and absence due to illness. The project has not yet been completed.2) A working group comprising representatives of LO and the Confederation of Norwegian Business and Industry (NHO) has been established to consider «The costs of absence in connection with pregnancy». The project has not yet been completed.3) LO focuses continuously on women and stress injuries. This is a difficult political process and this matter has not yet been settled. In general, we can say that it is useful to participate in joint projects with the authorities and between the social partners in order to reach a common understanding of problem areas that should be focused upon and solved.”

5.2 The Center for Gender Equality:

“In 1999 a public committee has evaluated and written a report on women’s health in Norway. Their conclusion is that Norwegian women, compared to other countries’ demographic figures for women, have good health and a favorable health service. The committee does however point out a few important areas that ought still to be considered insufficient: the use of resources and research on both women’s diseases and insurance and health policies.”

This page was last updated December 23, 1999 by the editors

D. Violence against women

1 The Plan of Action to protect women from violence.

In June 1998, the Norwegian Government appointed an inter-ministerial committee to develop a plan of action to prevent violence against women. The plan will be presented to the Government in 1999. The Committee consists of state secretaries from several ministries. The terms of reference are as follows:

“The target group for the work will be women who have been victims of violence and intrusion. The plan will focus particularly on preventing intrusion into private homes and on situations where the victim and offender have a personal relationship (e.g. in health institutions, churches, workplaces, and in prostitution). Women from all walks of life and in all situations will be included, for example women in health institutions, women as asylum seekers, women from various ethnic backgrounds, women from various age groups etc.”

2 Comments by the NGOs

2.1 The Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions (LO):

“In accordance with LO’s Programme of Action and annual Action Plans, LO has been focusing on Abuse of women in the following areas:

1) The Action Plan Against Sexual Harassment has been revised. A manual on sexual harassment has been prepared for use in training union representatives to deal with these matters. There is a general impression that cases of this type represent a serious problem in working life, and they are regarded as difficult to address and solve. LO hopes that these measures will lead to more focus on this problem so that it will be easier for individual women to have their cases heard.2) An initiative has been taken to build networks for immigrant women members of LO so that members who wish to do so have the opportunity of establishing contacts in order to identify relevant issues and receive help to solve problems that they regard as being specific to them. LO can only establish contacts with working women. Responsibility for follow-up rests with the county organisations, and networks are being planned in five counties.”

2.2 The Centre for Gender Equality:

2.2.1 Introduction

“The issue of violence against women is closely connected to the equal rights and equal value of men and women. Violence against women is an extreme expression of the oppression of women in society. The fact that many women are exposed to gendered violence and sexual assault, limits to a very great extent their possibilities for active participation in society on grounds equal with men.

Several positive measures have been taken by the government. However, we believe that much more remains to be done. Much remains to be done in the area of prevention as well as in the area of providing services and support to those who have been exposed to violence and sexual assault. There ought to be a general strengthening of gender equality work. Greater resources ought to be invested in this work.

It is difficult to give any exact figures as to the extent of gendered violence, or the numbers of women being exposed to violence. Shelters in Norway report that about 2.500 women and 1.800 children seek refuge at shelters for battered women in the country each year. Experts maintain that ca. 100.000 men in the country which have a total population of ca. 4 million people, use violence against their partners. We feelthat a documentation of violence against women in the country is sorely needed. Thiswould givebetter insight into the forms, incidence and extent of the violence women are exposed to.

We wish to point out here that special consideration needs to be paid both to the short term and long-term mental and physical health consequences to those women who have been battered, raped and/or sexually assaulted.”

2.2.2 Shelters for battered women
“It is important to point out here that shelters for battered women, as well as the support centres for survivors of incest are run by non governmental organizations and are financially supported by the government. The government recognizes the importance of the work done by women's organizations in exposing and combating violence against women.

NGOs and women's organizations working in the area of equal rights ought to be strengthened and their financing secured and guaranteed by the central government. The financial support to shelters for battered women ought to be ensured. As of today, the central government does provide 50% of the shelters’ budget. However, the security of the shelters for battered women is dependent on the municipalities or local authorities which approve the shelters’ budget. Recently, some municipalities have been cutting down on their budgets for shelters, which means that the central government also cuts down on its share of the financing. This creates an unstable and insecure situation for the shelters.”

2.2.3 Alarm system for women threatened by violence

“The initiative for this project was taken by the Gender Equality Council. ^{linkinthoveddel004P414_417081}>”

2.2.4 A committee on violence against women

“We propose that a committee on violence against women be established that would be responsible for getting an overall insight into the problem and for proposing a co-ordinated approach to combating this kind of violence. As violence against women has consequences on several aspects of women's lives, the committee could find ways in which the different instances could cooperate in providing their services. Exposing all the aspects of the problem is an important part of the process of combating this particular form of violence. In the judicial area, a Violence Against Women Act, as the one initiated by the government of Sweden could be proposed that would regulate all aspects of these forms of violence. Greater effort and attention needs to be paid to the training, and the sensitizing of police in dealing with violence against women and in assisting and supporting those who have been exposed to gendered violence. Greater effort needs to be placed also on the training and sensitizing of health care personnel. Both the police and the health care system ought to find methods that would encourage and support more women to lodge complaints against their abusers. For example, the police and health care personnel could assist the woman in gathering the evidence she needs in court. There ought to be a co-ordinated approach to providing support to those who are getting out of abusive relationships. This is necessary, if they are to have a realistic chance for a fresh start free from violence”

2.3 The MIRA Centre

“A number of women today are forced to stay in violent relations due to the lack of legal rights. The immigrant women who join their husbands under the provision of family reunion, do not automatically have an independent residence permit until three years after their arrival in Norway. This means that women who are subject to grave violence and abuse often either must stay with their abusive husbands or face deportation from Norway.

The MiRA Center, through its crises and counseling services to the victims of violence, has for the past twenty years gathered valuable data on the forms of violence ethnic minority women are exposed to. It is our experience that the police and the immigration authorities most often believe the man’s testimony, rather than the woman’s. A woman is seldom given the opportunity of a trial separation period, which is a matter of course in all other divorce cases. If the woman in this separation period completed the three-year period, the immigration authorities would find it difficult to deport her. This situation and a general lack of legal protection contribute in perpetuating violence against ethnic minority women and empower men to keep them in subordinate positions.

In order to prevent violence against ethnic minority women one has to empower the women themselves. One measure could be to strengthen the self-organisation of minority women, and provide them with the necessary financial support. The women themselves must become the predominant source of finding solutions for the prevention of violence.”

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1 In co-operation with the Ministry of Children and Family Affairs and the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, the Ministry of Justice and the Police has developed an alarm system for women who are threatened by violence. The alarm is offered to women who have been seriously threatened or have proved to be in a vulnerable position.

This page was last updated December 23, 1999 by the editors

E. Women and armed conflikt

Main objectives in order to recruit and keep women in the Armed Forces :

• 7 % female officers and enlisted personnel by the year 2005.
• 13 % women, civilian and military, in leading positions by the year 2001.
• 40 % civilian women in certain groups of employees.

Plans and activities:

• The Strategic Plan for Gender Equality approved by the Norwegian Ministry of Defence in 1993, is still valid. The four main areas of focus in this plan are training, marketing, family policy and real career opportunities.
• The Action Plan for Recruiting Women, launched by the Norwegian Ministry of Defence in 1995 is also still valid.
• The Armed Forces completed a new model for personnel policy and fundamental values (FV) in June 1998. The concept of fundamental values in this context includes human values, gender values and gender equality.
• The FV model has resulted in new policies within areas of gender equality, recruiting, leadership and careerbuilding. In 1999 an action plan for the implementation of these policies will be launched.

High profile in the work for gender equality in 1999:

• Norway is chair of the Committee on Women in NATO Forces 1998-1999, and hosted the annual meeting of the committee in summer 1999.
• The Norwegian Chief of Defence has mandated a group to create an exhibition on the history of women in the armed forces. The exhibition will be located at the Norwegian Defence Museum and is scheduled to be open to the public in the year 2000.
• Women officers are currently participating in civilian mentor programmes. A military mentor programme will be established in order to increase the number of female officers in higher positions. A mentoring-programme for cadets graduating from the military academy will be developed.
• The armed forces participated in the project “ Women Lead the Way 1999”, an event which took place in Norway in August 1999. The objectives are to promote the armed forces in general and opportunities for women in particular in cooperation with civilian institutions. This project also focus on the female civilian working in the armed forces.
• The armed forces support a network of female officers
• In 1999 an action plan will be developed for the purpose of recruiting more female civilians in general and in particular to positions of leadership.

Financial and institutional measures

The Norwegian Ministry of Defence has earmarked NOK 2.4 million for activities to promote gender equality in the armed forces in the year 2000. The Ministry intends to earmark similar amounts in the following years.

Innovative policies

The new personnel policy, mentioned above, aims to increase the number of women in power and decision- making positions.

Future challenges

The average age of employees in the armed forces will rise in the years ahead. At the same time, the current decline in the birth rate will result in a decrease in the number of young people available for recruitment. Competition among employers will therefore be harder. The challenge will be to get more women into work outside their homes and be able to recruit them into the organisation.

A special challenge for the Armed Forces will be to promote more women officers to the highest ranks to show that women the capabilities and the right to reach the top. This will in turn encourage other female officers to apply for more senior positions.

This page was last updated December 23, 1999 by the editors

F. Women and the economy

1 Introduction

The government, partly in cooperation with labour organizations, has so far done a great deal to increase our knowledge of equal pay between women and men, for instance by establishing the Technical Reporting Committee for Wage Settlements.

The Ministry of Labour and Government Administration is currently working on a report to show the research-results in the field entitled «Women in the Labour Market by the year 2000». This report will present the results of research in different areas, such as participation in the labour market, causes of wage- differences and working hours time.

2 The agricultural sector

Since the Beijing Conference in 1995, progress towards gender equality within the agricultural sector has been mainly made within the areas of employment and economic equality. This progress has not been the result of a national action plan, but of certain measures taken within the field of conventional agriculture, as well as within the field of rural development.

2.1 New measures taken within conventional agriculture

The effort to promote the participation of women in a wider range of conventional agricultural activities has been increased. Nevertheless, there is still a great need for new perspectives on conventional farming and a wider repertoire of innovative ideas and solutions. New policy strategies have been formulated, aimed at enabling women to continue and increase their contribution in this field.

The Allodial Rights Act (Odelsloven) gives relatives preference with respect to farm property and gives the eldest child (until 1974 the eldest boy) first choice in taking over the farm. But research shows that parents encourage boys much more frequently than girls to exercise their allodial rights and take over the farm. It is a challenge for agricultural policies to motivate girls to make conscious choices and utilize their allodial rights.

2.2 The Committee on Equality Issues and Recruitment to Agriculture

In summer 1997, the “Committee on Equality Issues and Recruitment to Agriculture” was appointed to analyse the situation within the agricultural sector. The Ministry of Agriculture was in charge of the work of the committee, which has reached the following conclusions:

- the migration rate from rural areas is alarmingly high - the number of girls taking over farms is far from acceptable - in the period 1983–1992, 17 per cent of all farms on the market were taken over by women - 1 out of 10 farmers is a woman - women provide 25 per cent of all labour input in the farming sector - women receive 9 per cent of all state support available to the farming sector, - women are 11 years older than men when they take over a farm - women are poorly represented in agricultural and forestry organisations - recruitment to farming seems to be on the decline.

To sum up the report’s recommendations very briefly, securing the position of agriculture in economic life in Norway in the future will depend upon:

- the successful recruitment of young farmers - the successful recruitment of female farmers - the successful building of know-how and skills in farmers of both genders

The Equality and Recruitment Committee has proposed very precise objectives to achieve equal opportunities:

- Women and men must have real equal opportunities to make a living within conventional farming and forestry and within new business sectors developed in or linked to farming and forestry. - Income and ownership of capital must be evenly distributed between men and women.

To assess the results, the Committee has proposed that by thebeginning of the year 2005

- 30 per cent of all agricultural properties must be transferred to women - 35 per cent of all applicants for direct payments (i.e. support given on the basis of land area, number of animals held and direct support to milk production) must be women - 35 per cent of all members and representatives of councils and organisations must be women - 30 per cent of all man-years within agriculture must be accounted for by women

As a result of the work of the Equality and Recruitment Committee, allocations from the take-over grant have been increased. An extra direct payment per year for farmers below the age of 35 has been introduced.

Before the end of the year 1999, the Ministry of Agriculture will forward a white paper on agricultural and rural development policies.

2.3 Rural development measures

In 1993, the Government established the Rural Development Support Scheme (RDSS). Under the RDSS, farming families can increase their incomes by engaging in alternative activities to the traditional ones. The RDSS offers grants and loans for diversification purposes as well as for investments within conventional farming. Funding is available for both female and male applicants, but women are given priority. Under the regulations governing this funding, initiatives promoting jobs for women must be given priority. Also, in certain cases, support intensity is higher for female than for male applicants. Evaluations and reports show that about 50 per cent of the total number of grants awarded to entrepreneurs were received by women. Women apply for small grants and tend to avoid risk. They tend to start their business on a small scale and build it up gradually. Surveys also show that businesses run by women go bankrupt to a lesser extent than those run by men. Reports show that about 25 per cent of total RDSS funding is awarded to women. It is one of the objectives of rural development policy to increase the share of total support granted to women.

3 Trade and Industry

According to the Ministry of Trade and Industry, NOK 10 million has been allocated over the National Budget for 1998/99 for a project which is to be introduced by the Norwegian Industrial and Regional Development Fund. The target group of this programme mainly consists of highly qualified women, or women within the educational system who can be expected to hold senior positions in the private sector in the future. The project focuses on the advancement of women in the private sector and has two objectives: The first is to increase the number of women in top positions within the private sector, and the second is to encourage female entrepreneurship.

In connection with the first objective, the following measures are under consideration. As training and education are vital elements in the advancement of women, several of these measures focus on the educational system:

- measures to qualify and motivate women for leadership, such as adjustments to the curricula at certain universities and (technical) colleges, in order to make these fields more attractive to women - initiatives in cooperation with organisations within the private sector that can contribute to an increase in the number of women in positions of leadership, by for instance helping companies to find qualified candidates for managerial as well as board positions (for instance by establishing databases) - up-grading courses for women, with emphasis on issues of special interest to women in managerial positions - measures to improve recruiting procedures in companies - research on the coherence of organisational structures and the possibilities of combining work with family responsibilities

The project's second objective is to improve framework conditions for female entrepreneurs. In our experience, women tend to be far less willing to expose themselves to financial risk than men. As a result, female entrepreneurs have experienced that they do not qualify for funding under the existing schemes operated by the financial institutions. This may be, for example, because they are not willing to mortgage their houses in order to supply the required collateral to establish a company. Some women also find that they do not qualify because of the nature/segment of the company being established. Others have encountered the problem of applying for loans that are below the bank’s minimal level of interest. And although statistics show that companies owned by women tend to be more credit worthy then those owned by men. Women still seem to meet discriminatory attitudes when applying to financial institutions for funding. Measures therefore have to be taken with regards both to men and women in order to help overcome some of the barriers to female entrepreneurship.

We are also looking at the educational sector and considering how to attract more women to university and college courses in entrepreneurship. This could, in turn, contribute to raising the professional level of women in this field, and thereby help to break down both social and cultural barriers to women entrepreneurs.

4 Comments by the NGOs

4.1 The Confederation of Norwegian Business and Industry (NHO):

4.1.1 Women in Business and Industry

“In 1995 NHO started a program called “Women in Business and Industry”.

The main goal of the program is to increase the number of women in high level executive positions. NHO has a good relationship with the Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions (LO), in tasks concerning equal rights and equality issues, briefly presented later in this document.

The challenge of The Confederation of Norwegian Business and Industry hence lies in putting to use both women and men as resources in a constructive collaboration whose goal is the formation of values. We mentioned that diversity is an absolute advantage for Norwegian enterprises, if they are to compete in today’s market situation.

In order to ensure that gender equality be given top priority, a solid base at the top of management is needed. Statistics tells us that the numbers of women in leading positions are increasing in NHO member enterprises. In 1995 3.3 % of the top leaders in NHO enterprises were women and in 1997 the figure has risen to 5.2 %. The group of women in recruit positions increased from 17.7 % in 1995 to 19.9 % in 1997.

We can see that development has occurred more rapidly in the last few years, something that can be attributed to a more conscious commitment to projects in companies who put more of an effort into motivating and encouraging women towards higher positions. Women compose an increasing number of those who are more highly educated. The competition in the market is increasingly becoming more demanding. One of the advantages available to Norwegian enterprises is the access to competence; so far this has been little developed.

NHO is a driving force in this process and through Women in Business and Industry it has undertaken the task of increasing the number of women in leadership positions. The program is based on different projects, which are briefly presented here.”

4.1.2 Equal pay agreement

“A common project has been established to secure the implementation of a ten- point program, which both employers’ and employees’ organisations have supported. Here the parties agree that equal status is a leadership responsibility, which must be placed at the top of the enterprise organisation. Another point is that gender equality involves much more than the question of wages, it is also involves attitudes and norms. “

4.1.3 Women in enterprises

“Through «Women in enterprises» NHO offers counseling and opportunities and exchange of experience between enterprises that are organised into groups. NHOs role is to offer competence where it is sought: in the anchor process, in a surveying-phase or by resolution and implementation of an action plan, as well as providing lectures on current issues such as work environment/organisational culture and working methods and systems. “

4.1.4 A mentor-program

“The program is based on the mentor/adept concept where top level executives (mentor) transfer ideas and expertise to employees (adept) who have leadership potential. The mentor-ship program is designed to help a company identify and develop leadership among its own employees. It creates an environment for producing high level executives from within the company. In this way the company benefits from the diverse talents and resources of its employees, women as well as men.

There are three obligatory plenary meeting – first, at the outset, then in the middle and finally at the end of the mentor-ship program. In addition, a five-theme day per year is arranged where couples from all on-going mentorship programs are invited. Mentor and adept ideally meet two or three hours per month over a period of 12-14 months. Both adept and mentor must be committed to the program and its goals, and make active participation a top priority. “

4.1.5 Women to the top

“The project has sub-projects running all over the country. They are based on collaboration between enterprises and components of the athletics organisations, with the focus on detection of female talents. Yearly «Women to the top» hands out a development scholarship.”

4.2 The Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions (LO)

“1) Equal pay is an important goal for the Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions (LO). Although the participation rate of women is among the highest in the world (75% of the 16-66 age group), the Norwegian labour market is still highly gender segregated. Women are in lower-paid jobs to a much higher degree than men, and thus there is a strong correspondence between striving to increase lower wages and striving for equal pay for men and women. LO has placed priority upon the lowest paid in the collective bargaining in recent years, and this has benefitted women as well. Extra increments were directed towards sectors where many women were employed. This was done to strengthen further the equal pay profile. Besides collective negotiations LO has projects both alone and together with the employers’ organisations to promote gender equality.

In Norway the Technical Reporting Committee on the Settlement
evaluates the economic situation and prospects twice a year. The committee is headed by the public statistical bureau; as well ministries and employer- and employee organisations are represented. Progress towards equal pay has been a separate issue in the reports for some years now. This is an example of mainstreaming in Norway.

The committee has identified the form for the awarding of central increments, and it has aimed this toward the branches with a high density of women employees. These moves constitutes important features for promoting pay equity in pay settelments. Extra amounts to the low-paids and nominal (instead of percentage) increments are the current forms used in the process of seeking equal pay.

For LO, the wage settlements in the latest bargaining period (1998-1999) have included these elements. Still the statistical reports on full-time employees vary. In retailing, manufacturing and transportation branches some progress has been. Women get paid from 84 to 95 percent of what men get on average, and they are catching up. However, in banking, the municipal and governmental sector there is a backlash.

Compared to men, women in 1996 earned 80,6% of the sum earned by men per hour. Less overtime worked by women, and more part-time work explain some of the difference.

2) LO took part in the Ministry’s study on gender-neutral work evaluation and has supported the implementation of trial schemes in its response to the consultation paper. LO has been awaiting an Governmental bill setting out principles for a national job evaluation system.

3) The Equal Status Agreement was revised in connection with the negotiations between LO and NHO on the Basic Agreement in 1997. Strong principles were also laid down in the part-time Agreement. In connection with the settlement on the Basic Agreement in 1998, it was agreed that LO and NHO should renegotiate the ten-point-programme on equal rights in working life. The parties agreed on a new programme which is more concrete as to the equal rights work at the enterprise level. A proposal for the renewal of the LO/NHO Ten Point Programme will be submitted at this year’s interim negotiations. Since we are working in a joint committee, there are good chances of achieving positive results on the basis of a common understanding.

4) LO and NHO are considering the possibility of reforms to introduce more flexible working hours. One of LO’s objectives is to enable individual employees to combine work and family life more easily. The process is well under way. The women’s perspective is a central feature of the discussions.

5) LO took the initiative for amendments to the Working Environment Act in order to reduce the use of part-time and temporary employment, etc. so that those wishing to work full-time should be able to do so. The Act was amended in accordance with LO’s proposals.

6) LO has proposed extending parental leave entitlements in connection with childbirth. In order to avoid discriminatory effects against women and persuade fathers to take more responsibility for the care of their children, LO has proposed that a greater proportion of parental leave in connection with childbirth be reserved for the father, and that fathers have individual rights to accumulate paternity pay. LO and the other social partners who submitted responses to consultation papers warned the Government against introducing cash support for parents who do not use publicly-funded day care centres, among other things because they fear that this will have negative effects on women’s equal access to working life and will also affect the rate of provision and cost of places in day-care centres. No extensions of leave entitlements or individual rights for fathers to accumulate paternity pay have yet been introduced. The cash support reform was introduced. The rate of provision of places in day-care centres and the funds provided for supervised leisure-time activities in schools have been reduced.

7) LO is making active efforts to reduce the job qualifications required for membership of various collective pension schemes, to improve pension schemes for part-time employees, and to maintain existing schemes, such as the agreement-based pension (AFP). The national unions are also making continuous efforts in this area. A great deal of work must be done to retain the existing schemes. LO has further developed the agreement-based pension arrangement which has proven as well to have a positive effect on women. LO is also working actively for the revocation of the Government’s decision that only workers earning more than NOK 57.000 a year shall be entitled to sickness benefits.

8) In cooperation with the Federation of Norwegian Professional Associations (AF), LO submitted a proposal to the Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs that a project be established with a view to encouraging pupils in upper secondary schools to choose studies that may reduce the differences between the genders in their choice of careers. The project has been established, headed by the Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs, with various sub-projects in four counties. This project began in 1997 and continues for four years. It is too early to report on the results of the project.”

4.3 The Centre for Gender Equality:

“The new cash benefit scheme ^{linkinthoveddel006P580_676502}> will - in the opinion of the Center for gender equality – reinforce the gender segregated labour market and will in the long term prevent equality between men and women. Men often have higher salaries than women, they have no tradition when it comes to part time work, they feel more pressured to have a career and they have a strong feeling of obligation to provide for their family. Most fathers will therefore work even more if the mother quits her part time job to stay at home receiving cash benefits from the government. This will lead to a situation where the woman is the «family expert» and the man is the «economic expert». The distribution of wealth is already to a large extent unequal between men and women. Women constitute the largest proportion of all old-age pensioners with only national basic pension (Women: 58 per cent, men: 27 per cent). Women in general receive far less pension money than men. Among women with personal income, 43 per cent earn less than 100.000 NOK, and only 19 per cent earn more than 200.000 NOK. “

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2 The cash benefit scheme was introduced in August 1998 for parents with children up to the age of three years old. The aim of the cash benefit scheme is to give parents a real choice as to the form of child care they prefer for their smallest children. The cash benefit scheme was the subject of a long political and public discussion before it was introduced and it is still being discussed. The scheme is currently being evaluated, but it is too soon to say anything definite about how it is being used or about its consequences in general. However, we know already that more families than expected have so far made use of the cash benefit scheme either fully or partially, and that many families have chosen to combine part time day care with a percentage of the cash benefit.

This page was last updated December 23, 1999 by the editors

G. Women in power and decision-making

1 Introduction

Various programmes for recruiting more women to positions of leadership have been initiated, in the public as well as in the private sector. A project called “Women, Quality and Competence” has been initiated to contribute to an increase in the number of women in executive positions in the public administration. The Government’s goal is to increase the number of women in leading positions in the public sector to 30 per cent by the year 2001.

2 The Women, Quality and Competence project 1997-2001

This is a four-year project. The aim is to increase the number of women in top and middle management jobs in the public sector from 22 per cent in 1997 to 30 per cent by the end of 2001.

A survey shows that the Government's goal of gender-balanced top and middle management teams has not been reached in the public sector. The proportion of women in top management positions in the individual contract -based pay system has been between 10 and 12 per cent throughout the nineties, and the proportion of women in middle management jobs in the ministries is about 33 per cent.

The following are the results of measures implemented by the Ministry of Labour and Government Administration to increase this proportion:

· Each ministry, and its subordinate agencies, has committed itself to increasing the number of women in top and middle management positions within four years, and to reporting annually on the results. The Ministry of Labour and Government Administration received the first results in January 1999, and the proportion of women in top and middle management positions in the public sector has increased from 22 per cent in 1997 to 26 per cent in 1999. · The Ministry of Labour and Government Administration decided in 1998 to give the Centre for Gender Equality the task of building up a central database containing the names of highly qualified women, which can be used as a source of leadership candidates and specialists. The database was opened in June 1999. · A mentor programme for women in middle management jobs aspiring to higher positions in the public sector was developed for the first time in 1999. This training programme started in April 1999, and is run by the Directorate of Public Management in Norway. · In 1998, the Ministry arranged network meetings for 7 ministries and 7 agencies with the aim of developing local pilot programmes to increase the recruitment of women into middle and top management jobs. Networking has continued in 1999. · Research on recruitment, mobility and development of equal pay in the public sector, initiated by the Ministry, has continued in 1999.

3 The Sami Assembly

In the election period 1997-2001, the Sami Assembly has 10 female representatives of a total of 39 representatives, a decrease compared with the previous election period. The Sami Assembly is now preparing a plan of action for gender equality. One of the aims of the plan is to increase the number of female representatives in the Sami Assembly.

In the Contact Committee of Immigrants and Norwegian Authorities, the number of female immigrant representatives is above the prescribed minimum of 40 per cent representation of women and men.

4 Comments by the NGOs

4.1 The Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions (LO)

“1) The research report «Women in LO» is one element of the project «Women’s Place and Participation in the Trade Union Movement». A survey was carried out in LO and associated national unions. The project also includes a trade union course for women. The proportion of women in most of LO’s decision-making bodies has clearly improved since the mid-1980s. Five of the eight members of LO’s management are women. The proportion of women in Congress and the General Council is approximately the same as the proportion of women members. The proportion of women in the elected decision-making bodies of the national unions is lower than the proportion of women members, but the differences are slight. With respect to local posts, almost as many women as men are elected, but women are under-represented in leading posts in regional and local branches. The report has been distributed through the national unions. A brief summary of the results has also been widely distributed.2) A committee has been established at LO to consider and present proposals for how we can better integrate the gender equality aspect and the gender aspect into the activities of the trade union movement, including the training of union representatives, employment and personnel policy, and general processing of cases. The recommendation is due to be completed in the second half of 1999. The experience of LO in Sweden and others gives grounds for optimism.3) A trial project has been established, starting in 1999, offering mentors for new women union representatives. The mentor scheme has not been implemented.

Institutional mechanisms for women’s career paths and career development:

1) The research project «Gender Disparities in Occupational Life» was a cooperative project between LO and several ministries. It was proved that there are structural differences between men’s and women’s career development and career paths. The results have been distributed in a presentation brochure.2) The research project «Restructuring and Internationalisation» is a follow-up to the above and is intended to provide new information about the situation of women in relation to restructuring and internationalisation. It studies four different enterprises. The project is expected to be completed in the first quarter of 1999, after which a guidance manual will be prepared for use in enterprises that are being restructured.3) The guidance manual «Men and Women Must Have Equal Opportunities» was prepared in cooperation with the NHO. The guidance manual was well received and there is much to indicate that it is used actively.”

4.2 The Centre for Gender Equality:

“In connection with a two year program conducted by the Ministry of Labor and Government Administration, the center has been given the task of building a database for women experts. Every field of competence will be covered. The database will, in addition to other measures implemented by the ministries, contribute to increase the number of women in leading positions, not only in public service but also in private businesses. We also consider the database as an important tool for the recruitment of women to boards, councils and committees in the public service and the private sector. A last point about the use of the database is the media and organizations. In the database you will of course find women who can give statements to journalists and hold lectures and speeches for different NGOs. The database project has a trial period of three years and it will be developed and updated continuously.

Projects like this are clearly needed. One example from the ministries shows that we are facing a retrograde step. In 1995 we had four female Secretary Generals in the ministries, today only one out of 16 is a woman. For the rest of the Civil Service the numbers are even more disturbing. 14 out of 100 Director Generals are women, and in addition 7 ministries do not have female Secretary Generals nor Director Generals.

In the private sector we find that 78 percent of the businesses have zero women within the management level. In 8 out of 10 businesses, fewer than 5 percent of managers are women. Portion of women in top management has increased from 3.3 percent in 1995 to 5.2 percent in 1997, but we are still facing major difficulties in this area.

In addition, the Centre has sent a list of proposals to the Ministry of Trade and Industry. A list of measures to be taken promoting gender equality for businesses. One example is the certificate of gender equality. Companies can receive such a certificate if they fulfill certain criteria such as: equal pay for equal work, possibilities to combine family and career within the company, integrated goals for gender equality in the company’s workplan ( for example one goal could be an increase of women in management positions to the double of the existing situation) and so on. This certificate could then be used by the government (central, regional and local) for tender. The companies that do not have this certificate cannot for example, submit a tender for the products the government wants to purchase. This certificate could be compared to the standards that companies need to comply to like e.g. ISO 9000 and environmental standards already integrated into government tender.

In addition such a certificate will either promote negative or positive PR for the companies involved.

The gender equality act should be extended to include boards and management for companies partly or wholly owned by the state. The 40 per cent rule should also apply in this field. ^{linkinthoveddel007P640_783413}>”

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3 The Gender Equality Act is currently undergoing an overall revision which will be presented to the Norwegian Parliament probably early next year. The present Act bears the marks of being drafted and adopted at a time when gender equality was less widely observed and more controversial than it is today. The proposal will include a new rule for representation of both sexes on committees, boards etc.

This page was last updated December 23, 1999 by the editors

H. Institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women

1 Introduction

The Centre for Gender Equality, together with the Ministry of Children and Family Affairs and the Gender Equality Ombudsman, constitutes the national machinery for ensuring gender equality.

2 The Gender Equality Ombudsman

The Gender Equality Ombudsman was established to promote gender equality and enforce the Gender Equality Act. Enforcement of the Act has shown that discrimination does exist in Norway, and the work of the Ombudsman has made discrimination more visible. Bringing issues into the open is important. The fact that the Ombudsman can document specific examples of discrimination is proof of the need for continued efforts to combat gender discrimination. In this way the focus is shifted away from women, making discrimination an issue for society as a whole.

Obstacles

One obstacle to achieving gender equality is to be found in popular attitudes towards gender equality in general. People in Norway tend to believe that we have already achieved gender equality. Young people in particular seem to believe this is the case. Attitudes, traditions and stereotypes are difficult to change and it is obvious that we need more than legislation and an ombudsman to make this happen.

To be effective, gender equality work is dependent on adequate financial support. From the Ombudsman’s point of view, working to a small budget and being hampered by a constant lack of money are serious obstacles to achieving gender equality.

Goals/plans/new initiatives

The Gender Equality Ombudsman has suggested several amendments to the Gender Equality Act. One suggestion is to strengthen the Act and make it more efficient. For instance, the Ombud needs better sanctions in the Act. As it now stands, the provision containing liability for damages is especially weak.

One specific goal should be to establish a better and more efficient local machinery for gender equality. The national gender equality machinery is to a large extent based on a centralised structure. Local structures should be strengthened in order to create a more dynamic, active and efficient environment for promoting gender equality.

The Ombudsman has also noted an increase in the demand for information about the Act. However, the Ombudsman and her staff do not currently have sufficient capacity to meet this demand. As mentioned above, the small budget hampers all their activities. In the Ombudsman’s point of view, one area where more funds are needed is the travel budget so that the Ombudsman and her staff can do more to raise the profile of the office.

3. Comments by the NGOs

3.1 The MIRA Centre:

“Gender equality in the legal system.

The Norwegian gender equality act that was enforced in 1979 is currently undergoing revision. There are plans for an overall revision of the act. It is The MiRA Center’s experience that at the time the gender equality act was enforced, Norwegian society was still considered more or less a mono-cultural society. The specific legal situation of immigrant women was thus seen as part of the immigration legislation. Therefore, the gender-based discrimination which ethnic minority women faced, which in some accounts would be different from the majority women, was not given sufficient emphasis by the gender equality act. It is therefore necessary that the specific situation of minority women be included in the gender equality act.

There is an urgent need to take affirmative actions to promote gender equality for minority women, particularly in the field of education and employment. The differential treatment of men and women is already seen in accordance with the act if it promotes gender equality in accordance with the broader purpose of the act. Preferential treatment is also given to men in certain professions associated with child care and teaching. To include minority women in this category would be in accordance with the broader purpose of the act. The preferential treatment of minority women will lead to the establishment of role models for the younger generation and combat gender segregation of ethnic minority women.”

This page was last updated December 23, 1999 by the editors

I Human rights of women

1 Human rights in domestic law

In 1989, a committee of experts was appointed by the Norwegian Government to propose constitutional amendments or statutory provisions to strengthen the position of human rights under Norwegian law. A new general provision (Article 110c) was included in the Norwegian Constitution in 1994 in accordance with a proposal submitted by the committee. This reads as follows: “It is the responsibility of the authorities of the State to respect and secure human rights. Specific provisions concerning the implementation of treaties pertaining thereto shall be laid down by law”.

In October last year, the Norwegian Government presented a human rights bill to the parliament. The Act was adopted at the beginning of 1999 and incorporates the European Convention on Human Rights and the International Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and their protocols into Norwegian law. The Act stipulates that the conventions shall take precedence over domestic provisions that afford weaker protection of the same rights and freedoms. The Government has stated that the incorporation of additional human rights conventions will be considered in the future.

2. Comments by the NGOs

2.1 The Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions (LO):

“1) Gender equality is an important and integral element of all the work on international solidarity and projects in which LO is involved. LO focuses particularly on highlighting the gender equality aspect in the organisations to which it belongs at Nordic, European and global levels. By drawing attention to the gender and gender equality dimensions in its international activities, LO contributes towards strengthening human rights.2) In cooperation with the Russian trade union movement, LO arranges special courses for women in Murmansk and Archangel. These are important contributions towards the development of the trade union movement and thereby contributions towards building democracy in Russia.”

2.2 The Centre for Gender Equality

2.2.1 Trafficking in women in the north of Norway

“In Norway’s most northern county, Finnmark, a severe problem with trafficking in Russian women is taking place, organized from the Norwegian, as well as the Russian side of the border. The trafficking started about five years ago, initially limited to some few camping sites. Now these camping-sites have become intermediaries for a sex-based traffic all over the county. The traffic is quite visible and does much harm both to the small communities in this area and of course to the image of Russian women who suffer from the hardships of life in their own country.

There is an urgent need for the Norwegian Government and local authorities to address this problem. It has to be undertaken in a twofold way: The authorities must find legal and other measures to stop the trafficking on the Norwegian side. In these effort the Government may draw on the knowledge of the local network against prostitution which is composed of both Russian and Norwegian women’s organizations. And – not less important – Norwegian/Russian cooperation must to a greater extent focus on the welfare, working and living conditions of women in the neighboring Russian areas. One suggestion that has been raised is to channel parts of the foreign humanitarian aid through local women’s organizations.

We recognize that the Norwegian authorities intend the amendment of the Immigration Act, No 64 of 24 June 1988, to have a preventive effect on cases involving trafficking in women. However, we believe that it is unfortunate to relate the problem of trafficking in women, to illegal immigration, and to see trafficking in women as a problem involving illegal immigration. By doing so, the Norwegian authorities are focusing on the women in prostitution and trafficking as the prime agents in the activity of illegal immigration, and as such are placing the blame for this activity on the women. It focuses on the women who are trafficked as illegal immigrants, implicating them as ’criminals’, as responsible for the criminal activity of illegal immigration, rather than as persons being exploited and victimized through the criminal activity of trading and trafficking in women, as persons who need support.”

2.2.2 Arranged marriages and forced marriages

“In recent years we have seen examples of marriages entered into under coercion in Norway. Consequently, we believe that there needs to be a better clarification between the practices of »arranged marriage» and »forced marriage». We see that it could be a problem for young people growing up in Norway with parents from other cultural backgrounds, that they are expected to marry a partner chosen by the family. However, we find that there is an unfortunate confusion in the report between the practice of arranged marriage, which is the norm in many cultures, where the marriage is most often arranged by the parents or other family members, and in principle involves the consent of all the parties involved, and, forced marriage, which involves the use of coercion, where young people are forced into marrying people chosen by their parents or other family members, against their will. Such marriages entered into by coercion are forbidden by law in Norway. Spouses who have been coerced into marrying may take legal action and have the marriage declared invalid. We would like to point out that this is a complicated issue and that the boundaries distinguishing force and consent are not always easy to draw. It can be difficult at times to draw a clear line between marriages that are forced, and those that are arranged with the consent of the young people concerned, and that it can be sometimes difficult to determine whether, in a marriage that has been “arranged”, “force” has been used.”

2.3 MIRA Centre

“The MiRA Centre feels that it is unfortunate to connect the trafficking in women with illegal immigration. We would like to state that the trafficking in women is a much more serious crime, and would need to be looked at separately, and not in connection with the mere need of the Norwegian authorities to control immigration. We would also like to express our concern with the fact that the Norwegian government in its 5th report to CEDAW focuses on women who are trafficked as illegal immigrants, implicating them as 'criminals', as responsible for the criminal activity of illegal immigration, rather than as persons in need of support who are being exploited and victimised through the criminal activity of trading and trafficking in women.”

This page was last updated December 23, 1999 by the editors

J. Women and the media

1 Films and videograms

The legislation on film and video (Act of 15 May 1987 No. 21 and Regulations of 7 December 1987 relating to film and video) regulate the commercial screening, sale and rental of films and video in Norway. The purpose of the legislation is among other things to prevent the marketing of videotapes containing violent or pornographic material prohibited under Norwegian law.

Any film or videogram intended for commercial screening must be inspected by the Norwegian Board of Film Classification prior to screening. The Board must not approve pictures that “violate public decency or have a brutalising or morally corruptive influence.” This prohibits screening of explicitly pornographic material.

Videograms intended for commercial sale or rental must be registered and labelled prior to marketing. The Norwegian Board of Film Classification may require that a videogram be assessed prior to registration. A videogram which is in contravention of the provisions on violent or pornographic material in the Penal Code may not be registered.

2 The Press

The Ministry of Cultural Affairs funds a management training programme for women in the press. This programme is arranged by “the Press Leadership Programme” which organises various Norwegian press organisations including the Norwegian Publishers' Association. The Programme receives an annual public grant of NOK 500 000.

This page was last updated December 23, 1999 by the editors

Appendix I

Report from the Catholic Women’s League of Norway

”Women and poverty.

1. WUCWO members everywhere raise their voices on behalf of the poor of the world.

2. WUCWO members together with women of all faiths campaign during the next four years for an examination of the whole question of the cancellation or substantial reduction of the international debt which threatens the future of many nations.

The Catholic Women’s League of Norway follows up this resolution by joining and supporting campaigns for the cancellation of the debts, e.g. that of CARITAS Norway.

Education and training of women.

Literacy

WUCWO members remind their governments that a country’s development rises as the level of education rises; should consider offering their services as educators and should raise awareness of the dangers inherent in the lack of education; should ask that there be no gender discrimination in the provision of education; should support the efforts of organisations such as UNESCO, UNICEF and Caritas to increase their budgets involved in improving literacy.

Human rights on education.

WUCWO members urge their governments to secure and stimulate the basic Human Right to Education for Women. Governments should see to it that religion and culture be not misused to withhold from women their basic right to self-determination in the fields of education, nutrition and health care.

Women and Health.

WUCWO members urge their governments to ban the export of pesticides, medicines and means of birth control which have passed their sell-by date and to promote ethical responsibility to business export practice.

“Women and Health” is one of WUCWO’s three chosen priorities and the Board of WUCWO has established a working party to examine the subject and propose measures. The working group, however, has not finished its work yet.

Violence against women.

“Violence against women” is one of WUCWO’s three chosen priorities and the Board of WUCWO has established a working party to examine the subject and propose measures. The working group, however, has not finished its work yet.

Women and armed conflict.

This Assembly urge all member organisations of WUCWO to campaign for a complete ban on the production, stockpiling, export and use of all types of anti-personnel mines.

Progress: Signature of the Ottawa Treaty.

Women in power and decision-making.

“Women in decision-making” is one of WUCWO’s three chosen priorities and the Board of WUCWO has established a working party to examine the subject and propose measures. The working group, however, has not finished its work yet.

Human rights of women.

WUCWO members promote and support the provisions of palliative care for terminally ill persons and the frail aged;

WUCWO members actively work against the decriminalization of euthanasia and assisted suicide wherever their governments attempt to introduce such legislation, and

Through the work of WUCWO commissions, steps be taken to confirm the right to life of all persons from conception to natural death, and provide support for those most at risk from the decriminalization of euthanasia such as the frail elderly and the terminally ill.

The Catholic women’s League of Norway has sent the text of this resolution to the Minister for Health and Social Affairs to make it known to the public committee which examined the questions in relation to palliative care.

The girl child

The Church increase its effort to counteract the killing of girl foetuses and girl babies.

WUCWO members request their governments to take measures to counteract the killing of girl foetuses and live born girl babies by seeking to better the living conditions, education and health of women. and by informing people of the harmful effects, especially for future generations, of depleting the female population who are the future bearers of children.

This resolution was proposed by the Catholic Womens League of Norway, first to the Norwegian Government before the Beijing Conference and afterwards to the WUCWO General Assembly in Canberra in 1996.”

Appendix II

Common Data Sets/Indicators for Measuring Development Progress in Norway

Population and fertility

Population 1998 (number)

Population size: Total: 4 417 599. Males: 2 185 106. Females: 2 232 493.

Population aged 0-4: Total: 302 797. Males: 155 524. Females: 147 273.

Population aged 0-14: Total: 872 919. Males: 448 183. Females: 424 736.

Population aged 15-49: Total: 2 177 894. Males: 1 111 586.

Females: 1 066 308.

Population aged 60+: Total: 865 273. Males: 371 800. Females: 493 473.

Population by urban/rural distribution 1997 (number)

Densely populated areas, total: 3 259 418. Under 2 000 persons: 466 141 (11 per cent.) 2 000 persons and over: 2 792 968 (64 per cent.)

Sparsely populated areas: 1 122 386 (26 per cent.)

Population growth rate 1997

0.6 per cent

Total fertility rate 1997

1.857

Fertility rate for women aged 15-19. 1997:

12.7 live births per 1 000 women

This page was last updated December 23, 1999 by the editors