Education for Development

Dokumentet på regjeringen.no

1 Introduction

Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.

Nelson Mandela

The way to development is via knowledge generation, information and skills. Education lays the groundwork for individuals’ and societies’ development and is essential for development and growth. A renewed global effort to achieve good quality, relevant education for all will give a significant boost to the work to fight poverty, create jobs, foster business development, improve health and nutrition, and promote gender equality, peace and democracy. It is high time that we renew our efforts in the field of education, and Norway intends to be a driving force and contribute actively to this work.

Today, 10 % of the world’s children still do not go to school. These children are among the most vulnerable; many have had to flee from their homes or are living in crisis-affected areas. A considerable proportion have disabilities. Moreover, in many countries, girls do not have equal educational opportunities.

There are also major geographical disparities. In sub-Saharan Africa, an average of one in four children of primary school age[1] do not go to school, although there are considerable differences within the region. The situation is particularly serious for the poorest children and in rural communities. It has been estimated that 250 million of the 650 million children of primary school age are not learning basic literacy and numeracy skills.[2] Learning starts at birth. Nutrition, care, and social and cognitive stimulation during the first years of life are of great importance for a child’s ability to learn. Poor quality education and learning outcomes are a problem at all levels.

In addition, far too many children do not continue their education after they have completed primary school. More than 70 million young people do not go to school and are in need of various education services, from opportunities to learn basic literacy/numeracy skills and practical skills for the world of work, to upper secondary and higher education. Many adults also lack basic skills: 16 % of the world’s adults – some 744 million people – are illiterate. Two-thirds of them are women.[3]

Although the percentage of children attending school has increased from 82 % in 1991 to around 90 % in 2011,[4] much remains to be done. The funding gap for achieving the goal of primary education for all by 2015 is estimated at USD 26 billion.[5] However, funding is not the only challenge. UNESCO estimates that 10 % of the money spent on primary education globally (USD 129 billion) is wasted on education services that fail to achieve adequate learning outcomes. UNESCO has also pointed out that good teachers are the key to improving this situation, and has called on all the world’s governments to intensify their efforts to train more and better teachers.[6]

Despite these challenges, the political will to give priority to education has dwindled in the international community. Development assistance targeted at education is declining, and the gap between needs and funding is increasing.

Unfortunately, there has also been a marked tendency to give less priority to education in Norway’s international development cooperation. The percentage of Norwegian aid channelled to education fell from 13.3 % in 2005 to 7.2 % in 2013. This Government wishes to reverse this trend.

Table 1.1 Norwegian aid for education (2001-13)¹

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Total spent on education, NOK million

719

856

1 086

1 293

1 662

1 720

1 576

1 541

1 759

1 601

1 517

1 623

1 690

Percentage of total Norwegian aid spent on education

9.0

9.6

11.0

13.1

13.3

13.5

10.4

9.9

9.8

8.6

8.2

8.5

7.2

¹ The figures for aid spent on education do not include core funding to multilateral organisations. They are calculated on the basis of the total aid budget, minus administrative costs in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Norad (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation), FK Norway and Norfund (Norwegian Investment Fund for Developing Countries). Nor do the underlying totals include core funding to multilateral organisations. This is in line with the OECD’s guidelines for aid statistics and established reporting practice in UD and Norad.

Global aid for education is an important catalyst, but the developing countries themselves must assume the main responsibility for financing their education sectors. National responsibility and ownership are essential if countries are to build up robust education systems and achieve economic growth and development. A number of low- and middle-income countries have given greater priority to education over the last decade and have increased their education budgets. This is a positive development, and opens up opportunities for constructive partnerships with donor countries.

The UN Millennium Declaration of 2000 sets out two main education targets: that ‘children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling and that girls and boys will have equal access to all levels of education’. The Education for All goals of 2000 were drawn up with a view to achieving primary education for all and a substantial reduction in illiteracy.[7] The deadline for both the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Education for All goals is 2015, and much work remains to be done. Norway will therefore contribute to a new international effort to ensure relevant education for all, and intends to lead the way in helping to ensure that ambitious goals are set for education in the post-2015 agenda.

Meanwhile, education will once again be given high priority in our own foreign and development policy. We will help to create results through knowledge-based and innovative approaches that build on experience and expertise. Norway’s efforts will make a difference.

We will take a comprehensive approach, and be a driving force in many fields. Our bilateral efforts will be focused on areas where Norway has particular expertise and where this is in demand. We will enter into new partnerships; we will also further develop existing networks and build on the experience we have gained from education and other fields in our foreign and development policy. Norway’s aid budget for education is relatively small in relation to the global education budget. In Norway alone we spend NOK 150 billion a year on education. However we believe that if we focus on areas where we have particular expertise, we can sow seeds that will yield significant results.

The outcomes of our efforts must, as far as possible, be measurable. We want to achieve results both in our role as a driving force in the efforts to achieve the MDGs, and, in the longer term, as an active partner in the work of implementing new development goals for 2030.

As is the case in all our development cooperation, we will have zero tolerance for financial irregularities. Nevertheless, we will take innovative approaches and be willing to take risks in working with our partners.

This white paper first explains why the Government wishes to intensify Norway’s efforts in the field of education. It then presents what our priorities will be. The overall objective is to reach those who are in greatest need. Particular importance is attached to strengthening the right of girls to receive an education. This is followed by an account of approaches and methodology, and of where and how we will concentrate our efforts. The Government wants Norway to be a driving force in the international arena, and will therefore play an active role in multilateral organisations and global partnerships. We will also engage in bilateral cooperation and efforts through various foundations, NGOs and the Norwegian business sector.

It is, however, necessary to set limits for what we aim to achieve, as this is a huge field.

This white paper does not describe Norway’s extensive higher education and research cooperation with many different countries and institutions in full, but this is referred to where it is of direct relevance. Nor does it discuss our education and research cooperation with the EU or our efforts in the EEA. The main focus is on the contribution Norway can make to improve education in developing countries and areas affected by crisis or conflict.

This white paper is to set the direction for Norway’s efforts in this field, and will be followed up in the annual budget proposals and action plans, and in new programmes and further studies as necessary.

1.1 Financing

The measures described in this white paper will be financed within the Ministry’s existing budgetary framework.

2 Why focus on education?

In addition to being an engine for economic growth and a prerequisite for development, education is a human right and vital to the individual’s personal development.

There is not equal access to education in today’s world. Access to, completion of and quality of education are unevenly distributed within and between countries. Through political engagement and development cooperation, Norway can be a driving force in the efforts to ensure access to good, relevant and inclusive learning.

The significance of such a boost for education is amplified by the global information economy, with its ever-increasing demands for a well-educated population, where the threshold for exclusion from the labour market is steadily being lowered. In a global context, a low level of qualifications in developing countries is increasing the gap between rich and poor countries. In order to contribute to economic growth, equal opportunities, and the realisation of universal rights and development, it is important and appropriate that Norway helps to reduce the gap between rich and poor both within and between countries by focusing on education in development policy.

2.1 Education as a prerequisite for economic growth

Research shows a positive correlation between education and economic growth. In order to develop and to experience economic growth, a country needs an educated labour force. This applies to both the public and the private sector.

Productivity growth augments economic growth. A number of studies have shown that improving the quality of education boosts productivity and means higher returns for the individual in the form of salary, career and social mobility. In developing countries, this effect can be observed even at the primary school level, as literacy and numeracy skills are fundamental for an individual’s productivity.

According to the white paper on the perspectives for the Norwegian economy (2013), most of the productivity growth in Norway in recent years can be attributed to education, research, innovation and more efficient organisation of work. Modern theories of economic growth describe how an economy can experience greater growth than can be explained by the input factors alone, through better organisation of society and by increasing the skills of the labour force.[8] New technologies in themselves can increase efficiency, but knowledge is needed to be able to use the new technology effectively.

Substantial economic gains can be made by educating marginalised groups, and even more by educating adults who did not acquire fundamental literacy and numeracy skills in their childhood.[9] It has been estimated that for each extra year of schooling completed by the population in a low-income country, the country’s GNP increases by 0.37 %.[10] Investing in relevant learning for all can therefore be seen as an engine for economic growth and social development, particularly during recessions and in situations of transition, for instance as a result of climate change.

Hanushek and Woessmann (2009) find an even stronger correlation between the quality of a country’s education and its economic growth than do researchers who use quantitative measures for education, although the latter also have significant explanatory power. This is mainly due to the strong correlation between the number of years of schooling and the level of knowledge. However, it is the quality of the education and the skills acquired that determine the significance of education for productivity and growth. This applies particularly in developing countries.

At the same time, we know that a sound, nationally embedded educational system is necessary for quality education services and thus for economic growth and development. South Korea and China are recent examples of countries that have systematically invested in high-quality universal education, and that have achieved strong economic growth.

There are clear links between the labour market and the availability of an educated work force. If the inhabitants are to be willing to invest in education, they must have expectations of getting jobs or positions where that education can be useful. At the same time, the labour market and employers are dependent on the availability of people with the required skills and education to fill vacant positions.

Textbox 2.1 South Korea and Ghana

In the 1970s, South Korea and Ghana had similar per capita incomes. In both countries, around 40 % of the population was enrolled in secondary education. South Korea increased its funding for education in the 1970s, and by the late 1990s achieved nearly universal secondary schooling. Ghana invested less than 2 % of its GNP in education in the 1980s, while South Korea invested around 4 %. During the same period, education efforts in South Korea were linked to broader strategies to stimulate the economy.¹ In 2012, the national per capita income in South Korea was about 16 times higher than in Ghana.² Since many factors influence economic growth, we cannot conclude that this difference is solely due to investment in education, but it is an important part of the explanation.

¹ Building Human Capital in East Asia: What Others Can Learn, Jandhyala B. G. Tilak, 2002.

² Global Monitoring Report, UNESCO, (pp. 205-207), 2012.

According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), increasing income disparities slow economic growth, while education is a means of reducing these disparities. Estimates show that a 1 % difference in adult literacy between countries means a 2.5 % difference in productivity and a 1.5 % difference in per capita GDP.[11]

History shows that no country can achieve sustainable economic growth without an educated population. Good literacy and numeracy skills are a prerequisite for the lifelong learning that enables individuals to adapt to increasingly rapid changes. Lifelong learning increases the likelihood of people being able to create a secure and predictable daily life, to adapt to new technologies and to be responsible parents and citizens. In this light, investments in global education are a catalyst for economic growth. In order to mobilise increased investment in education, there is a need to increase awareness of the link between education and economic growth and development.

2.2 The right to education

Human rights are internationally adopted standards that constitute a common, normative framework for all countries. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the right to education of good quality, and that it should be compulsory and free, at least at the primary school level.

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights confirms the right to education and the principles of universal, free and non-discriminatory primary education.[12] Education should strengthen the respect for human rights and promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among peoples. According to the Covenant, secondary and higher education should be made available and accessible to all, without discrimination, to the greatest degree a country’s economy allows. Irrespective of the resources available, countries must prohibit discrimination on the basis of ethnicity, colour, gender, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth or other status.

Figure 2.1 Schoolgirls in Nepal in deep concentration

Photo: Ken Opprann

The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child also affirms the right to education in Articles 28 and 29. Article 29 states that education should promote the development of the child’s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities. In addition, education should foster respect for the natural environment, for the child’s own culture, and for the cultures of others.

Article 3.3 of ILO Convention No. 138 on the minimum age for admission to employment and work states that young people are not allowed to work until they have completed compulsory schooling, and not earlier than the age of 15. The minimum age may be lowered to 14 in countries whose economy and education services are insufficiently developed. Article 7 of ILO Convention No. 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour states that each member state is to implement measures to prevent child labour in light of the importance of education.

Three other UN conventions require the countries that have ratified them to recognise the right to education for all: the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

The right to education means, according to resolutions in the UN General Assembly, that states that have ratified one or more of the conventions that refer to the right to education are obliged to recognise, respect, protect and fulfil this right.

The obligation to respect and safeguard the right to education means that states must avoid measures that restrict the right to education, and must intervene if a third party tries to undermine this right. For example, a state must not prevent the children of ethnic minorities from going to school.

The obligation to fulfil the right to education means that states must implement measures that enable the population to realise this right. This means not only providing education services, but also providing conditions that enable people to make use of these services, and not least ensuring that the whole population has access to primary education on a non-discriminatory basis.

The human rights perspective places the issues of power structures, central government responsibility, non-discrimination, quality, and meaningful learning at the centre of efforts to promote education.

Educational programmes based on human rights standards also strengthen other human rights. The UN points out that all human rights are interlinked. When one of them is realised, it is easier to promote the others; likewise, when one right is weakened, other rights are negatively affected. People who cannot read and write often experience violations of other rights. Economic, social and cultural rights can be strengthened considerably by realising the right to education. Education can lift people out of the poverty trap. The right to an adequate standard of living, which includes the rights to food, water and shelter, is more likely to be met when the right to education is fulfilled. This is an important platform for Norway’s engagement in global education.

2.3 The current situation

Although the significance of education for economic growth and development is well established, education has not been given high enough priority in Norwegian aid in recent years. Unfortunately, the proportion of Norwegian aid allocated to education decreased from 13.3 % in 2005 to 7.2 % in 2013.[13] The same trend can be seen internationally. The world is not currently able to mobilise enough funding to meet the need for education. International aid for education has stagnated since 2008;[14] the funding is too fragmented and the amount too low to provide the necessary strategic boost. There is thus a need for unified global leadership in this field. Moreover, the international community’s focus on primary education has resulted in less attention being paid to other areas, such as education for young people, quality of education, and learning outcomes. What is needed is a coherent approach, with an eye to continuity between the levels of education, and a focus on quality and learning outcomes at all levels.

At the same time, developing countries have been giving more priority to education in their fiscal budgets. On average, low-income countries have increased domestic financing of education by 7.2 % annually since 1999.[15]

Textbox 2.2 Mali

During the past ten years, increasing numbers of children have gained access to education in Mali. More than 60 % of all children between the ages of 5 and 15 have access to and attend school. However, there is still a considerable difference between girls and boys. On average, equal numbers of girls and boys are enrolled in primary school, but figures from UNICEF show that while 62 % of the boys complete this level, only 55 % of the girls do so.

Many schools have been closed for the past two years because of the military coup and conflict in the country, particularly in northern Mali. In addition, serious drought, a food crisis and flooding have prevented children from attending school. Some 800 000 school age children have not had access to adequate schooling. Mali’s infrastructure is poor, there are too few trained teachers and not enough teaching materials. Mali is completely dependent on aid to be able to implement its education plans. UNICEF has launched a plan to get 500 000 children and 9 000 teachers back to school. This includes the large groups of children who are living in refugee camps in Mauritania, Burkina Faso and Niger.

Primary education

International aid for primary education was doubled from 2003 to 2008 in response to MDG 2. Meanwhile, the number of children worldwide not attending school was reduced from 108 million in 1999 to 57 million in 2011, despite vast population growth.

However, there are considerable differences between regions and between countries, and between population groups within a single country. Major challenges still need to be addressed before all children are able to begin and – not least – complete primary school. Although many countries have made efforts to get children enrolled, the fact that many children are still not attending school is a protracted, serious problem, especially in Africa and South Asia.

The problems are particularly great in sub-Saharan Africa, although there are variations within the region. More than half of the children worldwide (52 %) who are not attending school live in this region.

One of the targets for MDG 3 (promote gender equality and empower women) is to eliminate gender disparity in primary education by 2005, and in all levels of education by 2015. According to the most recent UNDP Millennium Development Goals Report, the target of gender parity in primary schools has been reached, but with considerable variation between countries and regions. At the same time, we know that nearly one fourth of the young women aged 15 to 24 in developing countries have not completed primary school and lack the fundamental skills needed to get a job.[16]

Textbox 2.3 Nepal

Nepal is near the top of the league in terms of progress towards MDG 2 on universal primary education. From 1992 to 2012, the number of children enrolled in primary schools increased by 1.7 million, and the share of girls increased from 38 % to 50 %. However, the 2011 census showed that an estimated 500 000 children between the ages of 5 and 15 were not attending school. Many drop out before they finish primary school. The percentage of those out of school increases with age, and girls are overrepresented at all grade levels. Moreover, national tests show that for girls there are large gaps in the skills acquired. Targeted efforts are being made to strengthen the inclusion of vulnerable groups in the education system in Nepal. A major challenge in the years ahead will be to raise the quality of and access to education above the primary school level.

Improved access to primary school has created the impression that the education MDG has done fairly well, and thus does not need as much attention as the other goals. From 2009 to 2012, global aid for primary education fell by 16 %.[17] The decline in sub-Saharan Africa, where half of all out-of-school children live, was a massive 25 %, although this is partly because some countries have themselves assumed greater responsibility for education. At the same time, we know that in addition to the challenges posed by having so many children out of school, 250 million of 650 million school-aged children have left primary school without basic literacy and numeracy skills. About 130 million of them have completed four years of schooling without learning elementary skills, while the remaining 120 million did not complete fourth grade. There is a need to ensure not only enrolment – but also the overall quality of schooling.

Figure 2.2 Global Education Financing Gap

Source: UNESCO: Education for All Global Monitoring Report Youth and Skills: Putting Education at Work, 2012.

Young people and adults

Many developing countries have high rates of economic growth without this resulting in satisfactory employment growth and poverty reduction. People in poor countries have limited educational opportunities, and those that exist are often inadequate or irrelevant for finding work. Too few begin to study at universities and colleges. African countries generally have little to offer in terms of vocational training, as regards both quality and quantity. Existing vocational and technical schools are often poor and not in tune with the needs of businesses and employment opportunities. At the same time, vocational training often has low status in developing countries, and it can be more expensive to provide than academic courses.

Vast numbers of young people are without work, and the pressure is mounting due to rapid population growth. Many more will reach working age in the coming 10–15 years, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where the number of young people will double by 2045.

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimates that the labour force above the age of 15 will increase by 13.3 million annually for all of Africa between 2014 and 2020. Jobs in the formal sector are in short supply, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. This means that many people have to create their own jobs.

Many developing countries would now like to give priority to vocational education. The need for more and better vocational training has been emphasised in many contexts by UNESCO, the World Bank and the High-Level Panel on the post-2015 development agenda. More also needs to be done to make it easier for people to set up businesses. It is particularly important that more girls can choose vocational training.

Illiteracy

There are 774 million illiterate adults in the world. Two-thirds of them are women, and of the total number of adult women worldwide, nearly one-fourth are illiterate.[18]

Whereas there has been general progress in getting more children to attend school, efforts to reduce illiteracy have made little headway. The fight against adult illiteracy has received too little attention and support. If nothing is done to change the situation, it is expected that a large proportion of the world’s adults living in poverty will remain illiterate for generations to come. The situation is particularly grave in certain sub-Saharan countries.

Table 2.1 Norwegian ODA¹ for education by level, 2012–2013 (in NOK million)

DAC Primary sector

2012

% distribution

2013

% distribution

111 – Education, level unspecified

279

17 %

336

20 %

112 – Basic education

1 058

66 %

1 100

65 %

113 – Secondary education

45

3 %

30

2 %

114 – Post-secondary education

231

14 %

223

13 %

Total

1 612

100 %

1 690

100 %

Total ODA

18 947

8.5 %

23 588

7.2 %

¹ Not including core funding to multilateral organisations.

Girls

Despite progress, much remains to be done to ensure that girls have access to – and complete – primary and lower secondary school. Of the 57 million children not attending primary school, 31 million are girls. There are 65 million girls who are not in primary or lower secondary school. A large proportion of them live in sub-Saharan Africa or in South or West Asia.

There is a tendency for fewer girls than boys to start lower and upper secondary school in low-income countries. In sub-Saharan Africa, 82 girls for every 100 boys were enrolled in lower and upper secondary school in 1999. By 2011, this ratio had only increased to 83 girls per 100 boys.[19]

Girls are still in a clear minority in higher education, although there are considerable regional variations. In Latin America, South-East Asia and North Africa, more young women than men take higher education, while in sub-Saharan Africa women are under-represented. There, the ratio has dropped from 66 women per 100 men in 2000, to 61 women per 100 men in 2011.

One of the reasons why many girls do not attend school, or drop out after just a few years, is poverty. Poor families often have to set priorities that do not favour their daughters’ education. Many girls also leave school when they reach puberty because of poor sanitation facilities. In some countries, a lack of female teachers can be another reason why girls do not start school. Sexual harassment and violence against girls at school or on their way to school is a significant problem. When this occurs, families often choose not to send their girls to school.

Vulnerable groups

Within countries, the groups that most often have no access to education are: girls, working children, disabled children, children with minority backgrounds (such as indigenous groups and nomads) and children who live in remote areas. About half of all out-of-school children live in fragile and conflict-affected countries. Many of them are internally displaced or refugees. Being a girl can in itself lead to discrimination, and girls from poor families and from various marginalised groups often face double discrimination.

A common factor for these groups of children often is that they tend to come from poor families. It can be difficult for these families to send their children to school, because the children contribute to the family’s income, because schooling entails expenses, and because going to school does little to improve the children’s ability to work in agriculture and food production, which are the dominant source of income in many countries.

Although child labour is still widespread in many areas, there have been favourable developments globally since 2000, when there were 246 million child labourers. The situation is most serious in some sub-Saharan countries, where one fourth of the children aged 7 to 15 work. There are even indications that the problem is increasing in certain African countries that are experiencing economic growth.[20]

Children from poor families often start school late – if they begin at all – and they are at greater risk of not completing school. Studies show a drop-out rate of 38 % among those who started school two or more years later than the usual age for starting school. Poor health and poor diet, as well as dangers or difficulties on the way to school, are contributory factors.

2.4 Education as a catalyst for development

Economic growth is a prerequisite for development, but an inclusive society with room for all is essential for sustainable development. Universal access to an education that is adapted to the situation and the needs of learners lays the groundwork for development that will benefit both the individual and society.

People who receive an education acquire fundamental knowledge and skills and are given the tools and the inspiration to participate in society. Knowledge and education build trust between people and in social institutions. They are the most important instruments in the fight against religious and political fanaticism, and in combating corruption and exploitation.

2.4.1 Education is important for business and employment

The fundamental framework for business development and growth are: good governance, compliance with the principles of the rule of law, legislation that ensures a good investment climate, and access to financing and a skilled workforce.

Education is often required for participation in the labour market. Well-educated young people have the best prospects of finding stable employment or creating their own jobs. Perhaps even more important than the actual knowledge gained at school is the ability to acquire further knowledge and skills later through further education and/or at the workplace. For instance, the capacity to acquire new knowledge will have significance for a society’s ability to exploit the economic potential that lies in the global transition to green growth.

An obstacle to business development in many countries today is that young people who have completed primary education lack both the skills and the opportunities to pursue further education or find paid work. This can lead to social problems, political unrest and persistent poverty, as well as preventing the development of conducive conditions for business development.

In its report Global Employment Trends 2012, the ILO points out that the creation of new jobs is essential for development. Worldwide, there will be a need for 600 million new jobs by 2020.

2.4.2 Education is important in the fight against poverty

The UN has estimated that if all children in low-income countries left school with basic reading skills, 171 million people would have the skills they need to work their way out of poverty. This would reduce world poverty by 12 %.[21] For example, the proportion of people living in poverty in East Asia and the Pacific sank from 56 % in 1990 to 12.5 % in 2012, partly due to investments in education for all. Investing in education has also helped Brazil to lift millions of people out of poverty. A study from sub-Saharan Africa showed that the risk of being poor was reduced from 46 % among those without an education, to 28 % among those who had completed six years of school.[22]

Population growth is high in low-income countries. The World Bank has estimated that given the current growth rates, more than 70 % of those living in extreme poverty in 2030 will be in sub-Saharan Africa. Nearly half of the population in many of the poorest countries are children and young people.

In sub-Saharan Africa, the average fertility rate among uneducated women is 6.7 births per woman. Among women who have completed primary school, the corresponding figure is 5.8, dropping to 3.9 among those who have completed lower secondary school.

Education is a key factor in combating poverty, but at the same time, poverty reduction is crucial if children are to be able to attend school instead of having to work to support their family. This means that integrating education into plans to reduce poverty in developing countries can be a good investment.

Figure 2.3 Burundi: Proper care saves lives

Photo: Ken Opprann

2.4.3 Strong links between education, health and nutrition

Education leads to better general health and nutrition. Moreover, education is important for reproductive health, reducing adolescent pregnancies and achieving sustainable population growth. Schools can be an arena for promoting improved nutrition, protection against disease, and improved hygiene, and for combating female genital mutilation and HIV/AIDS. Higher education is an important factor for ensuring good services in the health sector.

Food security, nutrition and learning

The foundation for a child’s ability to learn is laid before the child starts school. Studies show that the quality of nutrition during the first one thousand days of a child’s life, from conception until the child turns two, is crucial to the child’s physical and cognitive development. Food security, nutrition and the ability to learn are interrelated. In some cases, poor food security and nutrition may be due to insufficient knowledge of production methods and of nutrition. Thus education also has the potential to reduce malnutrition, undernourishment and hunger. If all women completed primary school, 1.7 million children could be saved from malnutrition and stunted growth, and 15 % fewer children under the age of five would die, every year. If all women completed lower secondary school as well, as many as 12 million children could be saved from malnutrition and stunted growth, and deaths among the under-fives would be halved, every year. A total of 2.8 million lives could be saved each year if all the women in the world completed upper secondary education.[23]

In addition, the level of a mother’s education affects her children’s development and learning, as language and social skills depend on stimulation.

Further, schools can be an arena for enhancing food security for pupils and the local community.

Health

Education yields significant health gains. Proper care at birth not only saves the lives of mothers and children; it also reduces society’s economic and social costs related to treatment, disability and loss of income. At the same time, good health promotes better learning.

People who are educated generally know more about health and are better able to reduce the risk of getting various diseases. The level of health among children and young people improves if their parents have an education. The absence of epidemics and protection against disease are global public goods, and knowledge is vital for achieving this. Greater access to higher education will lead to more knowledge and new technology that can be used by decision makers and service providers to meet global challenges.

Child marriage, poverty, and insufficient access to general education, contraception and sex education are among the underlying causes of adolescent pregnancies. Around 30 % of teenage mothers in developing countries are under the age of 15. Every year, 70 000 teenage girls die due to complications related to pregnancy and childbirth. When those who have children are children themselves, the consequences for the local community and for the country’s economy as a whole are serious. Despite the importance of preventing adolescent pregnancies, less than 2 % of global funding for development is devoted to teenage girls. This is particularly problematic at a time when the number of young people has never been greater.[24]

Educating girls is one of the most effective strategies for combating child marriage and early pregnancy. Every day, an estimated 40 000 girls under the age of 18 are married off. If all girls completed lower and upper secondary school, the number of child brides would be reduced by two thirds.[25] At the same time, we know that early marriage and pregnancy prevent many girls from continuing their education. Studies show that if all the girls in sub-Saharan Africa and in West and South Asia completed lower secondary school, 60 % fewer girls under the age of 17 would suffer the social and physical consequences of pregnancy at a young age. In some instances, these complications are extremely serious or fatal.[26]

Female genital mutilation is a traditional practice rooted in local norms and values. Experience shows that this practice ends when those brought up in this tradition collectively agree to change the social norms. Long-term local efforts, with the support of national bans, information campaigns, and education, have reduced the prevalence of female genital mutilation in many countries. According to UNICEF, two to three million girls are still genitally mutilated every year. This is the case even though the majority of the women and girls where female genital mutilation is practised would like to see it eliminated.

In efforts to prevent female genital mutilation, a broader approach that includes informal instruction in literacy and numeracy skills or other measures that are relevant in the local context has proved effective. Teachers often play an important role as change agents in their communities through instruction in the schools and adult education programmes. Experience shows that girls who complete school are considerably less at risk of being genitally mutilated than those who do not.

Textbox 2.4 Using schools to combat female genital mutilation: the project of Save the Children in Ethiopia

Schools and teachers play a key role in combating female genital mutilation. Special courses are therefore held to increase the involvement and commitment of teachers. So far, 24 primary schools in the Afar region of Ethiopia have integrated various educational activities related to work against female genital mutilation in their curriculum.

Pupil-led clubs have also been established in schools to increase pupils’ awareness of the effects of female genital mutilation, and to enable them to influence their parents and the local community. Teachers organise and supervise the work that is done in these clubs. The school-based activities to eliminate female genital mutilation are coordinated with work being carried out in the local communities. Teachers and school administrators are included in the village committees. In this way, knowledge is passed on and these efforts can be more closely coordinated.

2.4.4 Education is the backbone of a democratic nation

World Economic Forum 2014 pointed out that the growing inequality between rich and poor within and between countries currently represents the greatest global security risk.[27] If the world does not manage to reverse this trend, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to ensure that everyone’s basic human rights are met.

Historically, education is the key to nation building, and knowledge is an essential tool for combating terrorism and religious and political fanaticism. Countries that set their sights on democracy, peace and tolerance can realise these values by giving priority to education for all, with a focus on good quality and non-discrimination. Hate and extremism cannot be combated by education alone, but it is difficult to envision how they can be eliminated without education. The backdrop to violence and recruitment to armed groups is often unemployment and a lack of access to education. This can be seen both in urban slum areas and in countries already experiencing conflict or at risk of conflict.

The likelihood of a person voting in an election is one and a half times greater if that person has completed primary education, and three times greater if he or she has completed at least lower secondary education, than for a person with no education.[28] In Africa, only 7 % of the relevant age group is in higher education today, while the world average is 30 %.[29] As we know that the potential for growth and democracy increases in line with the level of education, this is a challenge for the development of democracy on the continent.

Education also advances gender equality by raising awareness of gender issues among pupils and in the local community as a whole. The education of boys is crucial in this context. Recent studies show that boys who attend school and learn to respect girls’ rights play an even more decisive role for gender equality in their community than girls do. Boys’ and men’s ability to transform gender roles should be used more actively in the schools.

3 What are Norway’s goals?

The main objectives for Norway’s global education effort are to help ensure that:

all children have the same opportunities to start and complete school;

all children and young people learn basic skills and are equipped to tackle adult life; and

as many as possible develop skills that enable them to find gainful employment, and that improve the prospects of economic growth and sustainable development in the broadest sense.

Today, development assistance plays a limited role in middle-income countries, but a larger role in low-income countries. Experience shows that aid alone cannot solve a country’s challenges. It is first and foremost the authorities in the country concerned that have a duty to safeguard the rights of all children and young people in the country. A number of developing countries are increasingly shouldering this responsibility, and economic growth has enabled many developing countries to increase their education budgets in recent years. Nevertheless, many countries still face major challenges in terms of developing comprehensive and sustainable systems of universal education. The particular challenges and needs vary from country to country and from region to region, influenced by underlying factors such as the level of development, the quality of governance and the presence of wars, conflicts, natural disasters, discrimination, etc.

Figure 3.1 School break at Stella Matutina school in Burundi.

Photo: Ken Opprann

Norway’s strategy is to join forces and agree on common goals, mobilise increased resources and promote coordinated efforts at both global and national levels; we will also seek to strengthen educational systems at country level. The goals are to be achieved in cooperation with a large network of international and national organisations and specialists in the field. Altogether, this is expected to increase effectiveness and to move development trends more rapidly in the right direction.

Norway’s global education effort should not be seen in isolation from other sectors that affect and are affected by education. Norway will continue to provide aid in areas where we are already engaged, and where we are in a good position to play an important role, such as the health and energy sectors. At the same time, we will continue to focus on the key underlying challenge, namely the fight against poverty.

We will ensure that our efforts are sustainable by building capacity and strengthening systems and institutions in recipient countries. Effective taxation systems and tax collection are important. It is also important to ensure that government budgets in these countries give priority to education. Our efforts will be knowledge-based, will provide added value and will support the recipient countries’ own efforts. Aid should be given in such a way that it is not a substitute for the recipient country’s investment in education. Accordingly, the point of departure should always be a sound analysis of the specific conditions and challenges in each country.

We will contribute where there is a willingness to invest in education and where our partnership is wanted. In some countries, Norway may provide technical and financial support for the authorities’ efforts, and thus help to bring about real progress in the education sector. Norwegian efforts will also supplement and support educational efforts by other multilateral and bilateral donors, and we will seek partnerships and cooperation where possible.

In countries where the authorities are shouldering their responsibilities, and there are no special reasons for Norway to enter into direct bilateral cooperation, we will support multilateral efforts. We will also reach out to vulnerable groups in countries in crisis and conflict and to vulnerable states through strategic use of appropriate channels. Norway’s efforts are to have a positive development effect and underpin the positive development that is taking place in a number of developing countries.

A fundamental principle for Norway’s efforts is that primary education is to be free and available to all.

Norway embarks on this effort well aware of the fact that we have not solved all the challenges at home. For example, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has estimated that only 84 % of young people in the OECD countries today will complete upper secondary education. We want to bring our experience into this work, and to humbly acknowledge how difficult working in this field this can be.

The Government will:

work to increase awareness globally and at country level of the connection between the level of education and economic growth;

actively promote a global effort to achieve quality education for all in the period up to 2030;

build alliances and partnerships with developing countries, other donor countries, multilateral organisations, civil society and the private sector; and

reverse the trend of reducing the share of Norway’s international development budget that is allocated to education. The goal for this Government is to reach the 2005 level once more. Particular priority will be given to education for girls and for vulnerable groups of children, such as children with disabilities and children in crisis and conflict situations.

3.1 Education as a sustainable development goal

Education is one of the Government’s key priorities for the new Sustainable Development Goals. The new goals, which will build on the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), are to come into effect in 2016. The development of these goals is often referred to as the post-2015 agenda.

The MDGs have proved to be one of the most important and successful initiatives in the history of the UN. Since the Millennium Summit in 2000, the MDGs have mobilised global political support, funding and partnerships that have brought about important progress in social and economic development and in the fight against poverty.

The Government is giving high priority to the work on developing a new set of goals and mobilising international financing for sustainable development in the period after 2015. Civil society organisations and the business sector in Norway have been engaged in consultations as part of the process.

Norway is working for a post-2015 agenda that builds on both the Millennium Development Goals and the Education for All goals, while integrating the social, economic and environmental development dimensions, as agreed at the Rio+20 Conference in June 2012. Norway supports the development of a single framework with a limited number of easily communicable development goals.

Education should be given high priority in the new Sustainable Development Goals. There should be a separate goal on education, and the importance of education for attaining other goals should be highlighted.

Norway intends to take a leading role in these efforts and will help to ensure that the post-2015 Sustainable Development Goal on education is based on established international human rights obligations. The gender perspective must be integrated, and particular consideration must be given to marginalised groups. While the MDG on education only covered primary school enrolment, the new goal must cover all levels of education, with a focus on school completion, the quality of education, learning outcomes, education for young people and adults, and the acquisition of the skills needed for gainful employment and to function well in society.

The Government will promote the development of:

a separate goal on education that is rights-based, has an integrated gender perspective, and takes marginalised groups into particular consideration; and

targets on free high-quality primary education for all, better quality of teaching and learning outcomes, education for young people and adults, and the acquisition of the skills and knowledge needed to find gainful employment and become a well-functioning member of society.

3.2 Education for those we have not reached

Girls’ education is a question of justice and dignity. It is also the strongest lever for the development of societies and the construction of peace.

Irina Bokova, Director-General of UNESCO

Behind the improved school enrolment rates there are pockets of children who do not have access to education. These children are often discriminated against on several grounds: for example, a poor, disabled girl may also be from a nomadic minority living in a remote province affected by a crisis, with a long way to the nearest village. We will support efforts to identify marginalised groups. We will look into the opportunities for recruiting teachers from different minority groups and increase awareness of the importance of the language of instruction for the quality of learning in general and for children from language minorities in particular. We will draw attention to the needs of the large percentage of children and young people who do not yet have access to education because they live in areas affected by crises or conflicts. Norway intends to be a driving force in the effort to ensure that the goal, adopted by the UN, of ensuring that 4 % of humanitarian funding is allocated to education, is put into practice on the ground – as a minimum.

The various groups of vulnerable children tend to be harder and more expensive to reach than those who normally go to school. Which groups are excluded varies between countries and within countries. It is therefore important that methods and measures are adapted to the local situation.

The Government will:

implement urgent measures to reach out-of-school children with a view to achieving MDGs 2 and 3.

3.2.1 Girls and gender equality

I raise up my voice – not so I can shout but so that those without a voice can be heard. We cannot succeed when half of us are held back.

Malala Yousafzai

Girls who do not attend school can be hard to reach, but there are many good reasons for promoting education for girls nevertheless, not least because education for girls probably gives the best returns on investment in terms of development. Educating girls has positive spin-off effects in a number of other areas.

Education is essential if women are to take on political and economic positions in society on equal terms with men, and benefit properly from social goods. Educated women are better able to provide for themselves and their families. It has been estimated that for every additional year a girl in a low-income country continues in school, her future income will increase by 10–20 %.[30]

It is more likely that educated women will send their own children to school. The risk of becoming victim to human trafficking, child labour or sexual exploitation is less for children who attend school. This means that educated mothers, as well as fathers, play a key role in breaking the cycle of poverty. Education creates a positive spiral, and this is something we must contribute to.

If girls in poor areas are to have access to education, we must see these efforts in a broader context. We must take a coherent approach. If a girl’s mother receives proper maternal health care and other basis health services, the girl is more likely to be vaccinated and well nourished, so that she does in fact grow up and is able to learn. Easier access to water would give more girls time to go to school. If sexual and other forms of violence in schools can be stopped, fewer girls will leave school early. Better sanitation facilities will also increase the likelihood of girls attending school. It is important to continue the efforts at primary school level to ensure schooling for girls who continue to be excluded. It is also important to implement measures that enable girls to complete primary school and go on to secondary school, including vocational training. At the same time, we must not overlook the situation for boys when there are particular reasons for giving priority to them. In line with the MDGs, a great deal of effort has gone into increasing access to education for girls in many countries, while less attention has been given to the role schools can play in promoting gender equality. It is important that the gender perspective is included to a greater degree, for example in teacher training and teaching plans.

The Government will:

seek to ensure that girls start and complete secondary education.

seek in particular to ensure that girls in sub-Saharan Africa start and complete secondary education. The goal should be gender balance among those who complete secondary education.

help to develop innovative measures and incentives to encourage parents to send girls to school.

3.2.2 Poor children

Poverty is the root cause of child labour, but tradition and culture are contributory factors. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), 168 million children are engaged in various forms of child labour. Most of them work in agriculture, but children also work in households, the services sector, and industry. Child labour perpetuates poverty and affects the economy through loss of competitiveness, productivity and income.

Many poor children do not go to school, and it can be difficult to reach them as the cost of taking them out of work is too high, and their rights may be in conflict with cultural and traditional norms. In addition, the need to pay for books, uniforms and transport can be a decisive factor for whether children go to school or not. This shows the importance of taking an integrated approach to poverty, child labour and education. In some parts of the world, such as the Sahel and Somalia, resources are so limited that children’s contribution to family incomes is indispensable. This means that alternative solutions have to be found, so that children can be taught where they are, and at times when they have the opportunity to take part. Drawing up and ensuring compliance with national legislation can be a decisive factor, as has been shown in India in particular.

Textbox 3.1 Nutrition and education

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) regards schools as a vital arena for acquiring basic knowledge and skills relating to food, nutrition and health. Schools can reach children at an age when good habits relating to health and nutrition can be formed. Schools can also influence families and local communities in this regard. FAO takes an integrated approach to nutrition and education that includes practical activities, with emphasis on the school environment and the involvement of the school staff, the children’s families and the local community.

According to the World Food Programme (WFP), 66 million children in developing countries go to school hungry, and around a third of these are in Africa. A number of studies have shown that when children are hungry or suffer from malnutrition, they are less able to concentrate, and are thus less able to learn. Ensuring that children have enough to eat and are well nourished helps them to learn, and nutrition programmes can provide incentives for parents to send their children to school. If local food is used, this also stimulates local food production. School gardens and kitchens provide opportunities for learning about food production and cooking nutritious meals, which is relevant and useful for the children’s families.

Simple measures can break the vicious circle of hunger, poverty and exploitation of children, and vulnerable children often benefit the most from such measures.

Even in countries where access to education is equal, children from well-off families are more likely to complete primary education than children from poor families. Measures that reduce the barriers to enrolment, reduce the drop-out rate and boost school attendance, such as cash transfers, school gardens and nutrition programmes, bring about substantial benefits for both individuals and society.

The Government will:

support incentive schemes that make education more accessible for vulnerable groups, including measures relating to school attendance, better learning outcomes, better nutrition and intensified efforts to combat child labour. Priority will be given to low-income countries, fragile states and countries in conflict.

increase its support for alternative forms of instruction in crisis and conflict situations.

3.2.3 Children with disabilities

Altogether 15 % of the world’s population – more than one billion people – have some form of disability. Unless these people are included in society, and unless steps are taken to ensure that everyone can take part in and contribute to the community and overall development, it will not be possible to achieve key development goals.

Norway ratified the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in June 2013. This convention mainly has implications for the states parties’ domestic policy, but it also sets out that each country is to take measures to realise the objectives of the convention within the framework of international cooperation, for example by including persons with disabilities in international cooperation efforts.

Household surveys are usually the best source of information about access to education for different population groups. However, they do not provide adequate information about children with disabilities, as these children are often hidden away. Another factor that makes the statistics less reliable is the fact that children with disabilities are not always registered at birth.[31]

Figure 3.2 A blind child reading at a school in Bangladesh

Photo: GMB Akash/Panos/Felix Features

Society’s attitudes towards children with disabilities, for example as reflected in national legislation and policy, are decisive for their degree of access to education. In many developing countries, children with disabilities have far less opportunity to attend school than other children. Unfortunately, these children are often overlooked and have no advocates who speak out for them. UNESCO believes that as many as 90 % of children with disabilities do not attend school, and that this group constitutes one third of the total number of out-of-school children. As more children are wounded and maimed in areas affected by conflicts and natural disasters, the proportion of children with disabilities is higher in these areas.

Many children with disabilities are excluded from school in practice due to lack of physical access, for example stairs, narrow doors and unsuitable toilets. Transport to and from school for those who for various reasons cannot get to school on their own presents additional challenges. Such difficulties are further exacerbated in crisis or conflict situations. Inadequate classroom facilities and lack of suitable education materials are other important factors. In some countries, teachers may not have the necessary competence to adapt teaching to the particular needs of disabled children.

It is important to take an integrated approach when seeking to strengthen educational opportunities for children with disabilities. The situation needs to be surveyed, data collected, and plans drawn up to make the public school system accessible for all. Adapted teaching can make it possible for children with various disabilities and learning problems to be included and to complete their schooling.

The Government will:

include the needs of children with disabilities in its bilateral development cooperation, and be a driving force in ensuring that their needs are also addressed in multilateral and humanitarian efforts in the field of education; and

help to ensure that the needs of children with disabilities are integrated into national education plans.

3.2.4 Indigenous and minority children

Children from ethnic, religious and cultural minorities often do not attend school or perform badly at school due to discrimination or because the teaching is poorly adapted to their situation and needs. Children from indigenous peoples and other language minorities often experience additional discrimination, as they may not be familiar with the language of instruction. In addition to being taught in their mother tongue, these children also need to be taught in a way that respects their indigenous culture, traditions and knowledge. The recruitment of well qualified teachers from minority groups can help to enhance learning and understanding. With this in view, Norway supports the Maya programme in Guatemala through Save the Children Norway and several projects run by the Rainforest Foundation Norway.

3.3 Education in situations of crisis and conflict

The impact of armed conflict on children is everyone's responsibility. And it must be everyone's concern.

Graça Machel

Children often pay the highest price in situations of war, conflict and natural disaster. Half of the children not attending school today live in areas affected by crises. In many of the world’s poorest countries, armed conflict continues to deprive whole generations of children of the opportunity to get an education. Of the 28.5 million children of primary school age not attending school in conflict-affected countries, 12.6 million live in sub-Saharan Africa, 5.3 million in South and West Asia, and 4 million in Arab countries. Some 2.3 million Syrian children[32] do not have access to education in Syria.[33] The goal of primary education for all will not be achieved unless these children’s right to education is realised.

Far too many children witness and are victims of violence and destruction. Although it cannot be taken for granted that schools are protected and safe in practice, they can, under the right circumstances, provide a haven in a chaotic and difficult situation. When natural disasters strike, during long-term crises and in the early phases of reconstruction after conflicts or disasters, schools can provide some degree of normality, hope, stability and security. Schools can provide instruction and information that can save lives and protect mental health. Through their education, children and young people also acquire knowledge and skills they will need once the crisis or conflict is over and the work of reconstruction and reconciliation starts. Schools can also be an important arena for identifying those who need psychosocial follow-up. It is therefore vital that normal education is resumed as soon as possible.

When children’s schooling is interrupted, the risk of them not returning to school increases. They are also at greater risk of being recruited to militant groups or prostitution. When large groups of children miss out on education, this will later cause problems for society as a whole and will slow economic growth and development. Particularly when crises are protracted, it is important that children’s and young people’s right to education is respected, protected and realised in order to prevent whole generations missing out on an education.

In some emergencies, international organisations help to establish educational opportunities in areas where no such opportunities previously existed, or help to improve the quality of the educational opportunities already available. Many of the organisations that provide education have a double mandate in that they provide both humanitarian and long-term assistance. However, as is the case in other sectors, it can be difficult to develop sustainable solutions that prevail after the humanitarian organisations have withdrawn.

3.3.1 Disaster risk reduction in the education sector

Many crises develop slowly and could have been prevented with a timely reaction. Acute crises can also be limited by taking a precautionary approach. Disaster risk reduction not only means having a sufficient level of preparedness to be able to respond in the best possible way once a crisis arises; it also involves implementing measures to reduce the negative consequences once a crisis has arisen. The objective of disaster risk reduction in schools is to ensure that pupils, staff and parents can feel safe and secure, that investments in schools are kept up and that education continues in crisis situations. Investments in disaster risk reduction also reduce the needs for humanitarian aid in the wake of a crisis.

Figure 3.3 At the UNICEF-supported centre for refugees in Bar Elias in the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon, children are helped to process their experiences of war. ‘It is difficult to imagine what these children have experienced,’ says Nour Kattan, one of the teachers, when she sees the drawing Mohammad made when he arrived two months ago (1). Now Mohammad makes happy drawings (2).

Photo: UNICEF Norway

Textbox 3.2 Displaced girls in Afghanistan and Pakistan

Afghanistan and parts of Pakistan are experiencing protracted humanitarian crises. Conflict and natural disasters have made millions of children very vulnerable. With five million Afghan children not attending school, it is self-evident that this will have to change if the country is to achieve economic development. In both countries the problems are most serious in rural areas, and girls in particular are kept out of school when parents fear for their safety. More women teachers, local schools and boarding schools for girls are needed. The conflict in Afghanistan has driven hundreds of thousands from their homes. Many of these children live in urban slums, where very few children have access to education. In addition, there are nearly three million Afghan refugees in north-western Pakistan. Most of these families have been in Pakistan for more than 20 years, and have brought a new generation of refugees into the world.

In humanitarian efforts, emergency education has been given lower priority than emergency relief to save lives; at the same time, internally displaced children do not have access to the main education programmes. In order to rectify this situation, long-term development cooperation and emergency relief must be coordinated.

Save the Children Norway is providing education for children in the Peshawar area who have fled from the conflict in the tribal regions of north-western Pakistan. Teachers who have fled from these regions are also receiving training.

The Norwegian Refugee Council is helping to provide education for children and young people who have been displaced within Afghanistan or have fled to Pakistan, through teaching programmes that are tailored to their situation.

Norway supports the Norwegian Refugee Council and Save the Children Norway in these efforts.

Textbox 3.3 Haiti

The earthquake in Haiti in 2010 exacerbated the already precarious situation for education in the country. Eighty per cent of the schools in the affected areas were destroyed. In 112 of the 565 school districts in the country, there are still no public education services. Where public education services do exist, the quality of teaching is poor, as more than 70 % of teachers are unqualified. The illiteracy rate among adults is over 50 %. Around 35 % of Haitian young people cannot read or write. On average, children attend school for less than four years. Norway is supporting several education projects in Haiti, and is considering stepping up its humanitarian support for education in the country.

Schools are good arenas for increasing awareness about disaster risk reduction among children, their parents and the local community. Schools can spread information about measures to enhance resilience that can save lives in a crisis situation, as well as disaster risk reduction measures such as environmental and climate change adaptation measures. Schools can foster a collective awareness of safety that has ripple effects throughout the local community and leads to the development of a culture of safety.

An example of the practical importance of such knowledge is the lower secondary school in Kamaichi, Japan, which was hit by the tsunami in March 2011. The older pupils themselves decided that the school needed to be evacuated. They initiated an evacuation, and persuaded the teachers to evacuate to a point higher up the mountainside than the meeting point in the school’s evacuation plans. This may have saved the lives of hundreds of children and adults when the tsunami struck. In areas that have been struck by disasters, high priority is given to knowing what to do and being well prepared. In the wake of the typhoon Haiyan, for example, children in the Philippines have said that one of the most important things for them now is learning how to live with these violent storms. It is important that preparedness is also given high priority before a disaster occurs.

Figure 3.4 Education in Emergencies, the Masisi district in DR Congo. (Norwegian Refugee Council, supported by the European Commission’s European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) and Norway)

Photo: Jan Speed

Schools are often a natural place for civilians to seek protection in a crisis, but this requires that the school buildings are robust and situated in areas that are not vulnerable to floods, tsunamis or landslides. It is also crucial that the parties to a conflict agree not to attack schools. At the same time, it is important that schools do not continue to function as shelters in the long term, but can rapidly resume educational activities.

The safety of schools should be ensured through cooperation between the country’s education and emergency preparedness authorities. Knowledge about disaster risk reduction and preparedness should be included in teacher training, especially in fragile states. Knowledge about psychological first aid could also be included.

Textbox 3.4 Global platform to protect schools

A number of organisations, including UNICEF, the Red Cross, UNESCO, Plan and Save the Children, have joined forces in an informal network to promote safe schools. They have identified three partially overlapping factors that are vital for the safety of pupils and staff in areas that are vulnerable to natural hazards or conflict. They are 1) safe buildings, 2) the inclusion of disaster risk reduction and preparedness measures in the school’s activities and plans, and 3) the integration of knowledge about disaster risk reduction and resilience in the curriculum and teaching plans.

The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR), where Norway is co-chair of the Consultative Group this year, is also part of this network, and has taken the initiative for a global survey of the safety of school buildings all over the world. Norway will give priority to this initiative during its co-chairmanship.

The transition from an emergency to normality can take time. The ability to adapt rapidly to a crisis and then back to normality needs to be strengthened, also in the area of education. It is important that the humanitarian response, and the reconstruction that follows, make both schools and pupils more robust than they were when the crisis arose.

The Government will:

support international initiatives to ensure that all schools throughout the world are built in accordance with disaster risk reduction standards; and

support efforts to provide pupils with training in disaster risk reduction and emergency preparedness, and help to ensure that teachers receive training in the basic principles of psychosocial support in crisis situations.

3.3.2 Protection of schools during armed conflict

There is a growing tendency for schools in countries experiencing conflict to be directly affected. In some situations, military groups take over school premises, as we have seen in Syria and Colombia. In other situations, schools are military targets for ideological reasons, as we have seen with girls’ schools in Pakistan. Such attacks are a violation of international humanitarian law and must be monitored, documented and prosecuted. Warring parties must also be urged to follow the Lucens Guidelines for Protecting Schools and Universities from Military Use during Armed Conflict.[34] For example, during the civil war in Nepal, the Maoist guerrillas and the government forces agreed to define schools as peace zones, and this agreement was monitored and reported on by representatives from the local communities.

Another challenge relating to schools in conflict situations is the fact that schools are used as an arena for spreading hatred and reinforcing existing tensions. It is vital that schools seek to provide neutral ground before, during and after a conflict. Schools must promote respect for human rights and foster a culture of peaceful coexistence. In areas affected by conflicts or other crises, teaching must be adapted to avoid undermining the development of future governmental and administrative structures.

Textbox 3.5 The Global Coalition to Prevent Education from Attack

The Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack (GCPEA) has drawn up the Lucens Guidelines for Protecting Schools and Universities from Military Use during Armed Conflict. Norway has contributed to the development of these guidelines, and will support the GCPEA’s ongoing work of disseminating the guidelines through a network of states and civil society organisations. The GCPEA also focuses on monitoring and reporting attacks on schools. These efforts need to be strengthened, and the perpetrators must be held responsible. Over the last five years, there have been attacks on schools in 70 countries. In five countries (Afghanistan, Colombia, Pakistan, Somalia and Sudan), more than 1 000 attacks have been reported.

The Government will:

seek to ensure humanitarian access and protection in conflict and crisis situations with a view to maintaining continuity of learning and safeguarding schools;

encourage and support the development of teaching plans that take into account the need to reduce conflict;

be at the forefront of efforts to ensure that international humanitarian law is respected, and the militarisation of schools and universities and attacks on educational institutions stop; and

play a leading role in promoting the Lucens Guidelines internationally.

3.3.3 Education during humanitarian crises

In 2012, education accounted for only 1.4 % of the global funding provided in response to humanitarian appeals by the UN and humanitarian organisations.[35] The largest humanitarian organisations with an education mandate have set the goal of at least 4 % of humanitarian aid being used for education.

The reasons for this low level of funding are complex. Education is often far down on the list of priorities in humanitarian crises when the immediate provision of food, water and health services is considered paramount in order to save lives. However, humanitarian organisations point to the fact that education can save lives, that it provides vital knowledge and protection, and that it can often be a gateway to other life-saving measures.

Another challenge with regard to financing is that education is not a ‘one-off service’; it is a long-term measure. Humanitarian organisations often establish education services in places that did not previously have such services. Therefore, a decision to provide short-term support for education may well become a long-term financing commitment. This means that it is important to consider long-term solutions, mobilise development partners, and foster closer cooperation with them right from the start of a crisis. It is also important to consider whether transitional or development assistance can be introduced at an earlier stage than is the case today.

A further challenge is the fact that education for refugees is primarily provided by national institutions in the recipient countries. It is important that recipient countries are enabled to provide education services both to the local population and to refugees. In situations where there are huge flows of refugees, there is a need not only for a humanitarian response, but also for flexibility and adaptation of national curricula. The conflict in Syria, for example, shows how the burden on the neighbouring countries can make it necessary to consider the relationship between humanitarian and development efforts in a new light.

Norway is an important contributor to education in humanitarian emergencies, and our funding for education accounted for 3 % of the funding we provided in response to humanitarian appeals in 2013.[36] We also provide additional support for education that is not identified as such in the statistics. Almost half of this funding is channelled through civil society organisations, mainly Norwegian humanitarian organisations such as the Norwegian Refugee Council and Save the Children Norway, although a number of other organisations are also involved. In addition, we provide a considerable amount of support through multilateral channels. Norway is one of the largest donors to the education efforts of multilateral humanitarian organisations such as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the UN Central Emergency Response Fund. (CERF).

Norway is one of a handful of countries that include education in their humanitarian policy. In UN forums, Norway highlights the importance of education in situations of crisis and conflict. Further, Norway supports international networks that are addressing these challenges. The Government will use these channels to encourage other donors to follow suit.

Textbox 3.6 International Network for Education in Emergencies

The International Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) includes the largest international organisations and donors in the field, and has been at the forefront of efforts to promote education in conflict and crisis situations. Norway is a member of the network and provides funding on an annual basis. The network has developed international standards for education in humanitarian crises. The integration of these standards in emergency preparedness plans in the education sector and in humanitarian organisations will help to ensure a more effective response to crises when they arise.

The Government will:

help to ensure that one million more children have access to good-quality education in crisis and conflict situations;

encourage and support the development of innovative and flexible solutions that give as many children as possible access to education;

increase the percentage of Norway’s humanitarian assistance that is allocated to education, and increase the percentage of Norway’s development assistance that is allocated to education in the early reconstruction phase;

increase the use of development funds to help countries that receive large numbers of refugees as a result of humanitarian crises;

play a leading role in the efforts to reach the UN target of 4 % of humanitarian aid being allocated to education; and

help to increase knowledge about education in emergencies in national educational systems, in humanitarian organisations and among development actors.

Textbox 3.7 Examples of education measures for refugee and internally displaced children

UNICEF in Syria and its neighbouring countries

Towards the end of 2013, UNICEF launched its No Lost Generation strategy, which addresses most of the education-related challenges in Syria and its neighbouring countries. It includes activities and measures to increase access to education and psychosocial support, to reduce disparities and promote peacebuilding efforts, and rekindle hope for the future for millions of children. The primary focus is on mobilising resources through existing channels and under current plans. The strategy covers a broad range of programmes, from building schools to providing vocational training in refugee camps. The Lebanon programme, for example, has been developed in cooperation with the country’s education authorities, and aims to provide both formal and informal education opportunities to more than 400 000 children. Norway is contributing to the implementation of the strategy through the UN and NGOs.

Norwegian Refugee Council in Colombia

The Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) is working to ensure that refugee and displaced children receive a good, relevant education. One example of their work is in Colombia, where around 5.3 million people have fled their homes. This is largest number of displaced people in the world, and of this total, 64 % are under 24 years old. Although the authorities in Colombia uphold the right of all children and young people to receive an education, more than 480 000 internally displaced children and young people were out of school in 2010. Armed attacks on schools result in many out-of-school children in the most vulnerable areas. Due to limited resources and a lack of government presence, the authorities are not able to ensure education for all in the conflict-ridden areas.

The NRC has developed flexible education programmes that are tailored to the needs of these children. From 2010 to 2012, the NRC provided schooling for 32 160 internally displaced children and young people in Colombia through this approach. Between 85 % and 95 % of these pupils completed the entire programme. Moreover, 62 % of the pupils were girls. The Colombian government is continuing most of these programmes as part of its education services.

The education strategy of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

Education is a core component of UNHCR’s mandate to protect refugees and promote durable solutions. UNHCR has reached the half-way mark in its 2012–16 education strategy, which has six key objectives: better learning in primary school, safer schools, more young people in secondary school, more young people in higher education, greater availability of education for all ages, and inclusion of education in emergency responses. The achievement of these objectives requires further education of teachers, the appointment of more women teachers, and better adaptation of teaching for girls, for children with disabilities, and for those who have missed school earlier, to ensure that children can return to the school system they left.

UNHCR has set concrete targets for these efforts:

Ensure that 3 million refugee children have access to primary education

Expand secondary education to 1 million young people

Provide safe schools and learning environments for all young learners

Ensure that 70% of refugee girls and boys achieve quality learning in primary school

Increase by 100% the number of students attending tertiary education

Enable early childhood education for 500 000 children aged 3 to 5

Increase literacy rates among refugee adults by 50%

Provide non-formal education and training opportunities for 40% of young people, male and female.

The strategy also sets out that UNHCR will develop partnerships with ministries of education, as well as collaborating with UNICEF and UNESCO. Norway is supporting UNHCR in implementing this strategy.

The World Food Programme

WFP runs Food for Education programmes in many humanitarian operations, for example in Syria, in cooperation with other organisations. This is an effective means of meeting the nutritional needs of children, for example in refugee camps, while preventing gaps in the children’s education.

3.4 Learning outcomes

Although many countries have made significant progress in school enrolment since 2000, not enough has been done to ensure that children and young people actually do learn. In many countries, the focus on quantity has had a negative effect on the quality of learning. In some cases, the quality of education is so poor and of so little relevance that it is of little use and leads to few job opportunities.

Children from poor families and vulnerable groups are at particular risk in this context, especially in crisis situations and conflicts.[37] The question of the quality of education and learning outcomes is also a question of equal opportunities for vulnerable groups.

Figure 3.5 Gadjah Mada University in Indonesia.

Photo: Ken Opprann

A lack of focus on quality and on keeping children in school has led to what is now being called a global learning crisis. In the 85 countries for which we have statistics, more than half the children in 21 countries will not acquire elementary literacy and numeracy skills. Seventeen of these countries are in sub-Saharan Africa; other countries with major challenges are India, Bangladesh and Pakistan.

Ensuring quality education for all is a challenge for all countries, but particularly for poor countries that are struggling to build up sustainable education systems that provide good, effective learning environments. There is no standard solution, as the keys to success vary significantly from one country to another. However, there are certain factors that are essential. First and foremost, adequate financing is needed. This means that education must be given priority in government budgets. Furthermore, national ownership and leadership are crucial in order to bring about the reforms needed to build education systems that give all children and young people equal opportunities to receive a good, relevant education.

It is important to develop national systems to measure and assess the quality of learning and the progress made by pupils. Norway’s efforts to help enhance the quality of education will therefore include support for the development of sound, robust systems for measuring learning outcomes in core subjects. Experience gained from many regions shows that studies comparing learning outcomes in different countries can spur renewed efforts. It is important to build further on the work that is already being carried out, and to consider the extent to which global surveys such as PISA can be adapted for use in low-income countries.

International research shows that, apart from the pupils’ socioeconomic background, the most important factor for learning outcomes is teacher quality. In 2009, John Hattie presented an extensive study of the factors that improve results in schools. It identified a total of 138 factors that affect learning, the most important of which was the contact and interaction between teachers and pupils.[38]

A lack of qualified teachers is the main reason why many countries are experiencing a learning crisis. In the efforts to achieve education for all, not enough attention has been paid to recruiting enough qualified teachers. UNESCO has estimated that 5.2 million new teachers are needed in the period up to 2015. Nine of the ten countries where this need is greatest are in sub-Saharan Africa. The lack of teachers and relevant teaching materials in these countries has led to low educational quality, and many pupils have dropped out of school as a result.

Textbox 3.8 The need for more teachers

UNESCO has estimated that 5.2 million more teachers are needed in the period up to 2015 if all children are to have access to primary school. This figure is based on a pupil-to-teacher ratio of 40:1. Of this total, 1.6 million are new teaching positions, and 3.6 million are replacements for teachers who leave or retire. The estimated need for new teachers in 2020 is 13.1 million, and in 2030 as many as 20.6 million. Of these totals, the number of new teaching positions needed is 2.4 million in 2020, and 3.3 million in 2030. The need for new teachers is greatest in Africa and in South and West Asia. In West Africa, a region where large numbers of children do not acquire the basic skills at each level, more than half of all teachers are employed on temporary contracts and have no or little formal teacher training.

In many countries, the majority of teachers are women, but in several regions, and particularly in fragile states and remote areas, there is a lack of women teachers. The presence of women teachers is significant for the enrolment of girls in schools and their completion of an education. Data from 30 developing countries show that the recruitment of women teachers has resulted in more girls starting school and better grades for girls, particularly in rural areas.

Infrastructure, such as classrooms and sanitation facilities, is also important to ensure a safe and inclusive school environment. In many countries, this is particularly important for ensuring that girls complete their schooling. A lack of good, relevant teaching material is also a major challenge. In many countries, teaching material is not available in the pupils’ mother tongue, which creates problems in the early learning phase. UNESCO’s report Reading in the mobile era (2014) shows that poor teaching skills, combined with a lack of access to books, constitute the greatest obstacle to teaching children to read. There are strong links between the availability of books and learning to read. Various approaches to improving access to textbooks at reasonable prices are being tried out in the international arena. For example, USAID has launched a ‘100 million book fund’ and is interested in cooperating with Norway on this initiative.

Textbox 3.9 Major donors make use of ICT solutions

The UK and the US are using digital tools to achieve better learning outcomes in their development efforts. USAID recently launched the US Global Development Lab, which is applying science, technology, innovation and partnerships to help children and adults learn to read and write. In Uganda, instruction is made available for adults on their mobile phones. In Ghana, tablets can be used to follow teacher training courses and for students to access teaching materials. In other countries, mobile technology is being used for direct transfer of pupils’ school results.

The UK has launched innovation funds in several countries. In Pakistan, trucks equipped with a generator and satellite drive to remote areas so that the children there can follow maths lessons by teachers in town via internet. Teacher training through e-learning programmes and follow-up via internet are an important part of the innovation programme in Rwanda.

Internet, modern devices such as mobile phones and the social media have changed the world. In areas where there is limited access to textbooks, tablets and mobile phones can give children access to the books they need to learn to read satisfactorily. A study of children who play maths computer games in China and India found that these games improved numeracy skills, particularly among weaker pupils. Rwanda, Kenya and several other countries have made extensive use of new technology to improve the organisation and provision of health and education services. Investments in higher education, research and innovation in developing countries can enable these countries to develop more technology themselves, which can again lead to the development of solutions that are more relevant and user-friendly.

The use of modern technology, such as information technology, could significantly increase learning outcomes. The private sector is already engaged, and could play a greater part, in areas where this offers particular advantages. In some countries, mobile banking services are increasingly being used in the health and education sectors for the transfer of salaries, grants and incentive-based support schemes. This can have a positive impact in the fight against corruption.

Textbox 3.10 Technical aids

Through the Afghanistan Reconstruction Trust Fund, Norway is providing support for the use of new ICT solutions in the country. Whistleblowing systems are being established in schools in Afghanistan to make it possible to report irregularities, for example by mobile phone. Data on the number of pupils, teachers, the condition of schools and other information can be digitised and collected in an online database, available to the public. The Norwegian Refugee Council provides training in the repair of mobile phones as part of its vocational training programmes.

Textbox 3.11 Information technology

Major IT companies such as Intel are very aware of the importance of teachers as purveyors of knowledge, and of technology for facilitating learning. In cooperation with national education authorities, Intel is running extensive education programmes to improve teachers’ ability to use modern information technology in their teaching.

Intel Teach is a distance-learning programme for upper secondary school teachers with particular focus on key skills for the 21st century: creativity, problem solving, critical thinking and collaboration – skills that are needed in order to take part in the information economy.

Worldreader Mobile¹ was launched in 2012 in response to the shortage of books in many developing countries. It provides access to books and articles on a range of mobile phones, including reasonably priced feature phones. It is one of the most popular reader applications in developing countries, with an average of 334 000 active users a month in 2013. The application uses patented data compression technology to give mobile phones connected to the internet access to a library of more than 6 000 digital books.

¹ UNESCO is one of Worldreader Mobile’s partners.

It is not easy to build good quality, relevant education systems. There are no standard solutions. Each country needs to develop its own system based on its particular situation and its unique culture and history. Improving the quality of education therefore requires a national effort. The national authorities, civil society, the private sector, teachers’ associations, pupils, parents, multilateral organisations and donors must all be engaged.

It will be up to the national authorities to define what constitutes quality in education. This must largely be considered in the context of the challenges the country is facing in its fight against poverty and its efforts to create sustainable growth and development. National efforts need to take a coherent approach to the whole education sector, including higher education, which is vital for capacity-building in all areas of society. Alongside these efforts to build a more robust and effective education sector, it is also important to strengthen diagnosis and analysis capacity.

The ability to benefit from lifelong learning depends on pupils acquiring good literacy and numeracy skills at an early stage. The Government will therefore give particular priority to efforts to improve the quality of early learning, amongst other things by contributing to the provision of early and well-coordinated childcare and educational opportunities through partners such as UNICEF and various civil society organisations. In this connection, we will also champion a global effort to improve teaching, with focus on developing comprehensive strategies for meeting the need for qualified teachers through recruitment, teacher training, career development, distribution of teachers, incentives to keep teachers in the profession, and sound administration of schools.

Modern technology can provide useful tools for teachers, but at the same time, teachers need to be properly qualified in order to make full use of the opportunities technology offers. In developing good teacher training programmes, it can be worthwhile to think along new lines, particularly with regard to the use of new technology. It is also important to provide training opportunities for teachers who are already working in schools, and particularly to give those who do not have adequate qualifications the chance to improve their skills. At the same time, incentives should be provided to keep qualified teachers in schools, in line with the strategy to improve teacher education outlined in the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2013/14.

A social dialogue that includes the active participation of teachers and teachers’ associations is crucial for developing and implementing effective strategies. In many countries, a lack of dialogue between the authorities and teachers’ associations is an obstacle to efforts to enhance quality in education. There may be complex political processes related to privileges, salaries and status. Both employer and employee organisations in Norway have built up relevant and useful knowledge and experience that can be shared with partner countries.

The Government will:

take part in the effort to develop robust national systems that can provide good quality education, and in the work to measure and assess progress in basic skills, and support regional and global initiatives to draw up comparative studies of learning outcomes;

contribute to a major effort to boost teaching skills and the development of incentive schemes to recruit enough teachers where the needs are greatest, with particular focus on the recruitment of women teachers in areas where this is important to increase the attendance of girls.

establish a platform for exchange of experience and competence-building for teachers, where this is requested, drawing on relevant Norwegian expertise.

in cooperation with the private sector, Norwegian and international expertise and multilateral organisations, help to promote innovative use of new technology to improve the quality of teaching.

enter into partnerships with other bilateral donors for testing and improving technological solutions designed to enhance learning, and explore the possibilities of applying innovative solutions for improving access to books and teaching materials.

3.5 Qualifications for the world of work: vocational training, secondary and higher education

Worldwide, today’s generation of young people is the largest in history on a worldwide basis. This generation has talent, energy and new ideas that society should make use of. With the right measures, this generation of young people can be a resource rather than a challenge.

Figure 3.6 A girl in vocational training in Nepal.

Photo: Bjørnulf Remme

Robust academic and vocational training institutions can boost business development, often in cooperation with the business sector, by providing a qualified workforce, promoting gender equality and developing good managers.

In countries at an early stage of development with a large informal sector, providing basic education to those who are illiterate and enhancing basic skills will produce the greatest socio-economic gains.[39] As economic activity increases and the level of development rises, there will be a greater need for higher education and more advanced skills, and such skills will be valued more in the labour market. This will influence the approach Norway takes in its global education efforts.

Middle-income countries are in a better position to shoulder the responsibility for training and education their populations than low-income countries are. Even so, knowledge sharing, technical cooperation and dialogue with and between developing countries are important for finding the best solutions.

Textbox 3.12 The Middle East and North Africa

The population in the Middle East and North Africa is young, and the youth unemployment rate in this region is 25 % – among the highest in the world. The unemployment rate is high even among those with higher education, because the educational institutions do not adequately prepare young people for the jobs that are available. The World Bank, among others, has pointed out the need for strengthening vocational training and for improving coordination between the authorities, educational institutions and employers.

Norway will seek to ensure that vocational training and higher education are given greater priority internationally. The aim is to enable developing countries themselves to meet their need for qualified labour and employment for the large generation of young people.

In addition to efforts in low-income countries, Norway will take part in technical dialogue and cooperation with middle-income countries in key areas either through partners or directly in countries where Norwegian companies are operating and/or Norway is already engaged in technical cooperation. Norway will also promote South–South cooperation between countries facing similar challenges.

Textbox 3.13 UNICEF’s TechnoGirls programme in South Africa

TechnoGirls is an innovative mentorship and skills development programme. A cooperative effort between UNICEF, the South African authorities and 200 companies, this programme gives girls the opportunity to take internships in technology companies. The objective is to increase interest in science, engineering and mathematics among girls aged 15–18, and to create career opportunities for them in these fields.

Norway already provides extensive support for measures to enhance food security through bilateral, regional and multilateral channels. The Government now wishes to integrate food security and nutrition in its global education efforts, with an emphasis on developing closer links between primary education and vocational training on the one hand, and the knowledge and skills needed for agriculture and food production on the other. Training and education in this field is inadequate, and is often given little priority even in developing countries where agriculture is an important sector.

Through our global health efforts, we are seeking to strengthen the training of health workers, who are in short supply in many developing countries. Not only is there unequal distribution of qualified health workers among different parts of the world; there is also a lack of knowledge generation and certified practical experience. Exchanges can be one means of transferring relevant knowledge between countries.

In the energy sector, where Norway is already extensively engaged, there is a great need for competence building in order to increase the share of local content in both provision of services and direct production, from food services to engineers and managers.

3.5.1 Higher education

Investing in higher education is important for health, business development, and primary and secondary education in countries where large numbers of qualified personnel are needed. It will not be possible to improve the quality of primary and secondary education without enough well-qualified teachers and school administrators.

Textbox 3.14 Norwegian support for higher education and research

The Norwegian Programme for Capacity Development in Higher Education and Research for Development (NORHED) supports both cooperation between Norwegian educational institutions and institutions in developing countries and regional cooperation in the field. Projects include enhancing the research competence of academic staff, developing master’s and doctoral programmes, improving existing academic programmes, upgrading infrastructure and research equipment, and promoting research cooperation. NORHED gives priority to capacity development in teacher training, including special needs education, vocational training, and educational research. Some of the projects also aim to enhance the ability of higher education institutions to provide e-learning programmes.

Higher education is also important for innovation and economic development, which in turn makes it possible to increase tax revenues and establish good health and education services. In addition, higher education is crucial for developing robust and effective public institutions, which are a prerequisite for good governance.

Textbox 3.15 Training nurses in Malawi

Over the last ten years, a network of six Norwegian university colleges has cooperated with 12 nursing colleges in Malawi with a view to increasing quality and capacity. In addition, the Norwegian Embassy in Malawi has provided funding for equipment and infrastructure. This cooperation, which is coordinated by Norwegian Church Aid, has helped to improve the quality of nurse training through cooperation on the development of curricula and teaching methods, general competence building, and instruction provided by Norwegian teachers of nursing in areas in which the local teaching staff do not have expertise.

Norway supports capacity development in the higher education sector in developing countries through programmes involving cooperation between higher education institutions in Norway and equivalent institutions in the South.

Universities and other higher education and research institutions also receive Norwegian support at bilateral level through our embassies. In 2013, Norway provided NOK 1.38 billion in development aid for educational and research institutions, including NOK 13.6 million via FK Norway.[40] This cooperation will continue. In addition, we will intensify our efforts in the field of higher education in designated areas.

The brain drain is a problem for many poor countries and a challenge that we must address in our global education effort. Highly qualified personnel tend to migrate to countries with better social, economic or political conditions. In addition, many students from developing countries stay on in Norway after completing their education in the Norwegian system.

It is not possible to prevent people from seeking work where they choose, but incentives to stay in their own country or in a region greatly in need of qualified personnel can reduce migration without infringing on the right to freedom of movement. Incentives can be in the form of economic or non-economic benefits, such as housing, further education, schooling for children and good working conditions.

Experience shows that education opportunities in third countries, for example at Norwegian educational institutions, should be part of a concrete skills development plan in cooperation with local academic institutions.

The Government will:

strengthen development cooperation in higher education and research in designated fields that are essential for quality in the education sector;

intensify efforts to enhance teacher training and vocational training, educational research, innovative solutions and e-learning programmes through NORHED;

help to further develop higher academic disciplines that are of importance for our efforts to improve energy and natural resource management, global health, and nutrition;

strengthen programmes for exchanges in the field of education, for example through FK Norway;

help to further develop methods for distance learning in order to increase the reach of quality instruction and opportunities for further education and training at all levels; and

help to further develop incentive schemes for preventing brain drain, when possible in cooperation with other OECD countries.

3.5.2 Vocational training

Little importance is attached to vocational training in many countries, and this area tends not to be given priority in international development cooperation, although a number of donors appear to be developing an interest in this field.

In Africa, for example, unemployment is high, businesses are in need of skilled employees. The jobs available at all levels both now and in future will mainly be in the private sector – often in the informal sector.

In many countries, the private sector provides a considerable share of vocational training services. There are many companies that run their own schools or offer apprenticeships. Traditional apprenticeship is by far the most common form of vocational training in the informal sector, particularly in West and Central Africa. If the needs for education services are to be met, it is important to consider alternative ways of running schools.

A number of low-income countries are experiencing rapid economic growth that is driven by investments in the extractive sectors. These sectors are capital and technology intensive, but create few jobs directly. Supplying goods and services from the domestic market to petroleum and mining projects – known as ‘local content’ – can create jobs. Most countries that are rich in natural resources have set, or are in the process of setting, local content requirements. However, complying with these requirements may be difficult due to a lack of skills and capacity in local businesses, as well as poor framework conditions for local business development. Local employees in international companies often find it difficult to move up in the company hierarchy, and as a result, middle-level managers are often brought in from abroad.

It is therefore in the interest of these industries to help improve the qualifications of the local workforce. When local resources can be used instead of bringing in foreign personnel, it is possible to achieve major cost reductions and to increase long-term profitability.

In order to ensure its relevance and quality, vocational training must be planned, developed and provided in cooperation between the education authorities and the private sector in the country concerned, where appropriate with advice from experts in Norway or other countries with good vocational training schemes.

The Norwegian apprenticeship system, which the OECD has commended, seems to work well. Norway also has a scheme for adults who are already in jobs and wish to acquire formal qualifications, which would give them better opportunities for promotion. Norway’s experience can serve as an example, and, in an adapted form, can be helpful for other countries. In low-income countries where there is little cooperation between employer and employee organisations, and the education authorities are still at an early stage of development, it is probably best to start on a small scale and develop cooperation gradually. Our long-term goal will be to help other countries develop robust national schemes, including the development of institutions, rules and incentives that encourage people to take part in apprenticeship schemes. Meanwhile we are already engaged in relevant projects and programmes in developing countries that we can build further on, and not least, we have good partners in this field. This means that vocational training in certain sectors is a field in which Norway can lead the way.

Vocational training for development in cooperation with the Norwegian business sector

The Government sees great potential for development in the interface between education and the business sector, particularly in the field of technical and vocational training. Access to skilled labour is crucial for business development, and young people need to develop the skills necessary for gainful employment. The education sector has an important task to fulfil in this context.

Setting local content requirements means ensuring that investments generate national and local spin-off effects through capital accumulation, local business development, job creation, transfer of knowledge and technology, development of infrastructure, and generation of income and revenue. However, it is not possible to deliver local content without access to skilled labour, and it is therefore important to develop strong links between education systems and industry and the labour market.

Textbox 3.16 Vocational training in Norway

In Norway, employers’ and employees’ organisations work together with the authorities in the field of vocational training, along the same lines as they cooperate on working life issues. This cooperation is reflected in the 2+2 model, which divides responsibility for vocational training between upper secondary schools and the business sector. In the 2+2 model, the student/apprentice follows two years of instruction in school and spends two years working in an enterprise. The social partners, represented by the Ministry of Education and Research and the employer and employee organisations, have entered into an agreement under which the employer organisations must ensure that apprenticeships are provided in member enterprises for a certain percentage of students. Cooperation among the social partners is administered by the National Council for Vocational Education and Training, which gives the employers and employees organisations the opportunity to influence the vocational training scheme.

Experience-based trade certification

Experience-based trade certification is a scheme that is offered to adults who have work experience, but have not taken the theoretical part of vocational training needed to qualify for a trade or journeyman’s certificate. Experience-based trade certification is not a training scheme, but a scheme for documenting competence. It allows candidates to take a trade or journeyman’s examination on the basis of comprehensive practical experience over a period of time beyond that of a normal apprenticeship, normally five years. This period of practical experience must have covered the main parts of the vocational training curriculum. Candidates are exempt from the general subjects, but must be able to document their technical knowledge in a written examination, set by the central authorities, before taking a practical test. In the period from October 2012 to September 2013, experience-based trade certification candidates accounted for 32 % of those taking trade or journeyman’s examinations in Norway. The average age of these candidates in 2011/12 was 35.

Norway is engaged in natural resource management through programmes such as Oil for Development,[41] Clean Energy for Development,[42] and the International Climate and Forest Initiative. In addition, a number of Norwegian commercial actors are engaged in major projects in developing countries.

Textbox 3.17 Tanzania and Mozambique

Tanzania

Clean energy is a priority area in Norway’s cooperation with Tanzania. The Norwegian Embassy in Dar es Salaam is embarking on cooperation with Arusha Technical College on the rehabilitation of a hydropower plant and the establishment of a training centre for hydropower engineers. At the centre, the college will also test and further develop its own turbine design for small-scale plants. There is a great need in Tanzania for the practical vocational training that Arusha Technical College offers. Over the last five years, the number of students has tripled, and several new training programmes have been set up. The share of women students has increased from 12 % to 22 % during the same period. This is the result of a conscious effort on the part of the college.

Mozambique

Mozambique has vast petroleum resources. Norway is supporting the Ministry of Education’s upgrade of three vocational training colleges in Cabo Delgado. The aim is to adapt the training programmes to the need for labour in the planned development of natural gas infrastructure in the area. When the construction work starts (tentatively in 2015), there will be a need for some 8 000 to 10 000 workers. There will also be a great need for many other, related services. At present, neither the public education system nor the labour market can provide enough qualified workers, and most of the labour needed will have to come from other countries. Plans are being made for public–private partnerships involving the industry and the local authorities, under which the companies involved will not only provide funding, but will also take active part in the development of curricula, training and quality control, as well as providing apprenticeships.

Norway’s engagement in this field has brought to light the need for suitably qualified labour. There is also a need for vocational training that qualifies people to work in companies that meet the local content requirements in international operations. Norway is already involved in some vocational training initiatives in connection with our initiatives in the energy sector. The Confederation of Norwegian Business and Industry is using the experience gained from the vocational training scheme in Norway in its cooperation with developing countries, and is thus contributing to efforts to update curricula and adapt them to the needs of the labour market. Otherwise, Norway’s involvement in vocational training in the global arena has been relatively modest.

In order to create jobs, developing countries will need skills and experience acquired through higher education, vocational training and apprenticeships that are relevant for development.

A new Norwegian initiative to promote vocational training in the energy and extractive industries has been developed. It is intended as a supplement to existing programmes for development, and will be based on the need and demand for qualified labour.

This initiative will draw on Norwegian expertise and experience in the fields of higher education, vocational training and apprenticeship schemes that is relevant in a development context. We will join forces with other donors and multilateral organisations where we see that this will enhance our efforts.

The aim is to create synergies between higher education and technical or vocational training and other development efforts by taking an integrated approach. For example, one way of developing the local supply industry is to establish business incubation centres to help local businesses improve their competitiveness. Country-specific structural and social conditions, such as the general conditions for business development, the quality of the education sector, local content policies and the overall quality of institutions must all be taken into account, and must determine the approach taken.

This initiative will also involve strengthening sector-relevant higher education and work experience opportunities under the auspices of the industries concerned. The programme is intended to act as a catalyst, as far as possible in cooperation with existing educational institutions, with a view to strengthening them and promoting sustainability.

Norway will mainly concentrate on areas where vocational training is important for other major Norwegian efforts, such as Clean Energy for Development and Oil for Development. The vocational training for development initiative will supplement other Norwegian efforts and will focus on the same geographical areas.

Support scheme for qualification of local workers

There is a need for jobs in developing countries, and Norwegian companies operating in these countries need qualified workers. The better the qualifications of the local workers that are employed, the greater the local spin-off effects. Therefore, helping to meet the needs of Norwegian companies for skilled labour at all levels of the value chain – from catering to management – through our efforts to strengthen vocational training in poor countries is an important means of promoting local development. This is to be accomplished by means of a scheme under which companies can apply for funding for vocational training initiatives in the broadest sense, including upgrading of existing institutions or establishing new ones. The scheme may also cover various forms of apprenticeship. In order to qualify for support under the scheme, the initiative must have national ownership and the company must share the costs. The scheme is intended to be flexible and to create synergies between the business sector’s need for skills and local development.

Textbox 3.18 Examples of vocational training initiatives in the energy sector

The Norwegian Programme for Capacity Development in Higher Education and Research for Development within the Fields of Energy and Petroleum (EnPe) is a master’s programme designed to build capacity in the energy and petroleum sectors in designated partner countries. The programme is partly funded by the relevant ministries in the country concerned or other external sources, such as the Norwegian oil company Statoil.

A study has been initiated to examine the potential for further efforts to promote vocational training and the development of local industry in connection with Norwegian hydropower projects. The report will be presented by the end of 2014. In anticipation of its recommendations, funding has already been awarded for an upgrade of Butwal Technical Institute in Nepal.

This initiative is part of the major international effort to create the jobs that will be needed in the period up to 2030.

The Government will:

develop a new initiative, called vocational training for development, to enhance the qualifications of local workers. This initiative will be a supplement to other important efforts, such as Oil for Development and Clean Energy for Development, in sectors where Norway has extensive expertise;

develop an application-based scheme to support vocational training in connection with Norwegian investments in developing countries; and

strengthen cooperation with multilateral organisations, other donors, and countries in the South on vocational training for specific industries and local content development.

3.5.3 Young people and adults who have not completed school

In addition to the work of strengthening the quality of education in general, the Government will also give priority to efforts to give a new chance to those who have not the opportunity to complete a good-quality education. Primary education for people who are illiterate or have poor basic skills promises high socioeconomic returns and increases the availability of qualified workers.[43]

It is important to intensify efforts to reduce illiteracy among young people and adults. A particularly large number of women have never learned to read and write. Many of them have had a disrupted education as a result of crises or conflicts.

Textbox 3.19 Information technology

Information technology has vast potential for making education accessible to more people. UNESCO, Nokia and Persons are collaborating on the development of applications for smartphones. Mobile phones are widely used today, even among poor population groups. The use of text messages, for example, which is the cheapest way to communicate, provides strong incentives for illiterate adults to learn to read and write.

Inadequate literacy and numeracy skills are an important cause of exclusion. When combined with poverty, this can lead to marginalisation and social disparities, and at worst can result in recruitment to armed groups or prostitution.

We will attach particular importance to sharing knowledge about programmes that are effective. Obvious partners in this context are the UNESCO Institute of Lifelong Learning and various NGOs. It is also important to increase awareness among national authorities and to draw more attention to this group in the public debate in the countries concerned.

Norwegian humanitarian organisations such as the Norwegian Refugee Council and Save the Children run flexible educational projects that enable young people with family or work obligations to make up for schooling they have missed.

Through the World Bank, Norway is supporting capacity-building efforts at country and regional level in sub-Saharan Africa in the field of post-primary education. These efforts target the large numbers of people who have dropped out of or left the school system and focus on the skills needed by the business sector and the informal sector in the region. The aim is to impart basic skills, such as reading and writing, in addition to developing problem-solving, cooperation and communication skills.

UNESCO’s report Reading in the mobile era (2014) explains how mobile technology can be used to reach people with poor reading skills by creating a sustainable portal to education resources.

Textbox 3.20 Entrepreneurial skills

In order to prevent school leavers from heading straight for unemployment, it is important to give priority to the skills they need, not just for finding employment, but also for being able to create jobs themselves. FK Norway’s projects on developing entrepreneurial skills have produced good results, with 93 % of participants reporting at the end of their exchange that they have been able to identify opportunities for setting up business in their local area. FK Norway is now stepping up these efforts in sub-Saharan Africa. This means that even more young people aged 18–35 will receive training on how to put business ideas into practice. The overall objective of these efforts is to promote economic growth and the creation of jobs.

Measures are needed that enable girls to complete primary school and go on to secondary school, including vocational training. Norway will attach particular importance to helping girls make a successful transition from primary school to secondary school.

The Government will:

help to ensure that all children and young people have the opportunity to complete relevant, good-quality secondary education;

promote a stronger focus in the international community’s education efforts on combating illiteracy among adults, particularly women, including the use of technology to develop reading skills; and

help to ensure that young people who have missed out on schooling as a result of crises or conflicts have a new chance to receive an education on their own terms.

4 Approaches and methodology

A strong knowledge base and sound analyses are needed to make good decisions on innovative approaches and risk tolerance, and to set the right goals and performance criteria.

This chapter addresses the need for new, alternative financing mechanisms. It will look at ways of developing financing systems and partnerships that can mobilise new resources and make it possible to use existing resources in a more effective and strategic manner, for example through various types of results-based financing. We will seek to ensure that these mechanisms do not create long-term development policy commitments. In the same manner as for other measures described in this white paper, measures in this area should be implemented within the framework of annual allocations, and in line with the appropriation regulations adopted by the Storting.

4.1 Accountability and sustainability

Political mobilisation is important not only in the context of international cooperation, but also at the national level. Accountability is a key objective.

Weak institutions and decision-making processes often lead to low-quality services and low cost-effectiveness, not least in the education sector. Working to increase accountability and good governance means promoting implementation of international norms and follow-up of commitments, actively engaging in dialogue to influence national authorities, and, not least, setting high standards for the management of Norwegian funding. Development cooperation in the field of taxation, as well as political dialogue on human rights, will therefore be important instruments for advancing global education.

All education measures should have the firm support of the relevant authorities in the partner country. Aid should be a supplement to recipient countries’ own efforts. Norway will promote the creation of incentives for national and local efforts in partner countries, with aid acting as a catalyst.

In fragile states and in countries affected by crises and conflicts, it can be difficult for foreign partners to contribute to development without creating parallel structures. The need to get solutions in place quickly often outweighs considerations of sustainability and local capacity building. Education is a key element in statebuilding and in stabilising post-conflict areas. Norway will support the construction of central government structures in parallel with post-crisis efforts.

4.2 Innovation, building knowledge and measuring results

Norway will be a driving force for continuous evaluation of efficient ways of organising global education efforts, and for the development of new approaches to implementing policies – even when this entails risk. Our efforts will be result driven. This is crucial if Norway is to be a predictable and credible partner. Norway will also take initiatives and enter into dialogue in situations where changes need to be made in established cooperation forums.

With insufficient resources creating a considerable bottleneck, more education for the money is an important goal. Global health is a sector that has seen a high degree of innovation during the past decade. We intend to learn from past education efforts and from current global health initiatives. Global health efforts have shown that achieving good results requires the ability and willingness to try new forms of cooperation. For example, we have seen widespread mobilisation and engagement of non-governmental partners who have taken on greater responsibility in this field, and considerable use of non-aid funding, including from the private sector.

Substantial technological progress and the increased availability of electronic devices open up new opportunities for improving access to and the quality of education. Two in five individuals in developing countries have their own mobile phone. The number of people with mobile phones in Africa has increased by nearly 20 % annually during the past five years. This makes mobile phones the most readily available and the most widely used information tool in the world. Moreover, mobile phones are inexpensive and easy to use, which makes them well suited as a resource for learning. Sales of tablets are expected to exceed sales of conventional computers in 2014. However, there are vast differences in access to the internet. In 2013, 77 % of the population in developed countries had internet access, while the corresponding figure for developing countries was 31 %.[44] The provision of access to the internet will gradually become necessary for satisfactory access to information in schools, and it will become increasingly important to consider internet as part of the broader education picture. Broadband and internet access may be one of the most important tools we have for providing education services in remote and inaccessible areas, including refugee camps. Closer cooperation with actors that develop technological solutions can help spread this technology. Norway has considerable expertise in this field in both the private and public sectors.

Taking an innovation approach, including a willingness to take risks, requires the political will to evaluate, develop and try out existing and new financial mechanisms and organisational models. Norway has contributed to the establishment of new results-based partnerships such as GAVI, with owners from both the public and the private sectors. Norway will draw on this experience in its global education effort. One option may be to set up innovative purchasing arrangements with guarantees in order to reduce the price of textbooks.

In order to build up a results-based approach, systematic use should be made of studies and evaluations to find out which measures are most effective, and who incentives should be directed to. Target outcomes must be defined from the outset so that it will be possible to measure whether aid for education has the desired effect. We also need to learn more about the effectiveness of education efforts in humanitarian situations, and how they can be improved. Overall, policy development and global debates on education, whether political or technical, must be based on knowledge. Norway will help to promote knowledge-based debate.

Norway is willing to take risks, but they are to be calculated risks, and we will learn from experience at each step along the way. Sound risk management will increase the likelihood of successful implementation and good results. It will also enhance predictability, which is a defining quality of Norway’s global education effort.

We cannot expect all measures to yield results in the short term, as the social impact of structural measures takes time. That will not keep us from setting clear targets for the outcomes of our efforts and for when they can be expected to be achieved.

Although there is already a wealth of knowledge about education, there is still a need for more research and for more data on what works best in developing countries. We need to identify and locate marginalised groups more closely, and find out more about why they are subject to discrimination in education. The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) is a vital source of data in this respect. Norway will play a part in increasing the data collection capacity of both UIS and of individual developing countries.

The Government will:

investigate the possibilities for helping bring broadband internet access to remote areas of Africa through cooperation with the Norwegian Space Centre and relevant telecommunications companies; and

help improve education statistics by building data collection and research capacity in developing countries.

Textbox 4.1 Education statistics

The quality of education data and statistics needs to be improved in many countries in order to build robust, sustainable public education systems. Reliable statistics are also important for good planning and implementation of projects and programmes, as well as for assessing their results. Inadequate statistics may be due to insufficient capacity or expertise, unclear or ambiguous definitions, or political pressure. In addition, some areas are difficult to access due to conflict or other security issues. In order to improve the quality and availability of data, and thus the basis for decision-making, Norway is supporting the development of national statistical systems in Malawi, Kyrgyzstan and South Sudan.

The education sector can also draw on experience gained in the health sector, where IT-based solutions are becoming widespread. The Health Information Systems Programme (HISP) network coordinated by the University of Oslo has designed a tool for collection, validation, analysis, and presentation of data. This open source and free software, called District Health Information Systems II (DHISII), includes a user platform and a training programme. Although tailored to health information, it may also be suitable for the education sector.

4.3 Results-based financing

Results-based financing (RBF) includes various models for payment after results have been achieved, such as:

RBF from a donor to a recipient country, often called results-based aid. The best known example in Norway is our International Climate and Forest Initiative, through which countries receive funds for development measures after making verifiable reductions in emissions from deforestation. Another example is the GAVI Alliance, which disburses reward payments – normally to the health authorities – of USD 20 for each child vaccinated above a given baseline.

RBF within a country’s own system, where the central government, for example, rewards good results.

conditional cash transfers, such as a cash transfer to parents who send their children to school.

Norway has been and still is a pioneer in the development of RBF in the health and climate sectors. Interest in RBF in the education sector is also considerable, and is increasing. The Government will promote the use of RBF for educational programmes and projects to an even greater degree, in areas where this can be successful.

Conditional cash transfer schemes have been piloted in a number of countries, among them Brazil, Mexico, Cambodia and Malawi. A review of 23 evaluations of this type of scheme concluded that the programmes had achieved good results in terms of school enrolment and attendance, particularly among the poor. However, there is no evidence that these programmes led to better learning outcomes. This may be because learning outcomes had not been adequately defined as an objective.

Traditional aid has not on the whole produced satisfactory learning outcomes, and RBF is considered a potentially important tool for improving learning outcomes, at least in certain areas. Norway will promote the use of RBF, as it is learning rather than enrolment than creates economic growth and development.

We will seek to build on our own and our partners’ experience in our global education efforts, with a view to achieving progress in a sector that calls for new and innovative thinking. There is a need for further evaluation and testing of RBF in the education sector. This means that our efforts must include support for methodology development, as well as a willingness to take risks. The Government wishes to pursue this approach, and Norway has proposed new World Bank fund for result-based financing of education.

Textbox 4.2 Results-based financing in the health sector

Experience from results-based financing in the health sector is increasing in scope and is promising. In Rwanda, 23 % more women gave birth in clinics that received results-based financing. In Burundi, 499 deaths were registered per 100 000 pregnancies in 2010, after results-based financing was introduced throughout the country. This is a decrease from 615 in 2005. Child mortality dropped from 175 to 96 per 1 000 live births in the same period. Results-based financing has been shown to have played a part in these results. The programmes in Rwanda and Burundi are supported by Norway and the UK through a World Bank multi-donor fund. This fund, launched by Norway in 2007, is among the largest health funds in the World Bank system. Low- and middle-income countries can apply for funding and technical assistance for results-based pilots in their health services. The fund helps increase knowledge of how such financing can yield better results within maternal and child health. Pilot programmes have been initiated in some 30 countries. Several of them have shown good results and are being expanded. All these projects will be evaluated, and some of them will be subject to other types of research. By supporting this fund, Norway has helped generate valuable knowledge that is freely available.

The Government will:

promote results-based financing for projects and programmes related to education, where this is appropriate, including both multilateral and bilateral efforts.

5 Where will Norway direct its efforts?

The diversity of arenas and partnerships in the education field has led to a fragmentation of efforts. This means that better cooperation and coordination of international efforts is needed if the education goals are to be reached. Norway will strengthen cooperation through dialogue and consensus-building, and will work actively to move education higher up on the international agenda. If all children and young people are to be ensured access to good-quality education, all the relevant partners, at both country and international level, will need to work together strategically and effectively. In order to arrive at sustainable solutions, we must base our activities on national priorities and make use of national resources in addition to contributions by cooperation partners. Norway’s support is not intended to be a substitute for other resources, but to serve as a catalyst spurring national and international actors on to greater efforts.

Norway will systematically seek to promote greater aid effectiveness through country ownership, adaptation to national plans and donor coordination, in line with the 2005 Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, the 2008 Accra Agenda for Action and the 2011 Busan Declaration.[45]

Civil society plays an important role as critical observer and contributor to the global debate. Locally based NGOs are particularly important when it comes to reaching especially vulnerable groups of children and young people. These organisations can also play a critical role in countries in crisis or conflict, where the school system tends to function poorly.

Private-sector partners can provide financial support for efforts to make innovation and new technology available and well suited to the education sector and to improve the quality and relevance of the education provided.

The national authorities are responsible for providing all children with good-quality education. However, in many countries they are not able to do so and are dependent on forming partnerships with the business sector in order to increase the number of school places. Public–private partnerships also provide opportunities to improve access to education and the quality of teaching. However, such partnerships should be entered into only if they ensure that poor and marginalised groups also benefit from the improvements.

Another important group that needs to be involved in the efforts to provide education for all is the children and young people themselves, who should be given a stronger voice. It is crucial that the global effort for education yields results that meet their needs and wishes.

Norway will seek to ensure that developing countries establish robust systems for measuring, reporting and evaluating results. Such systems must be integrated in, not parallel to, the planning and implementation of projects and programmes. We will do our part to ensure that the appropriate knowledge and methods are communicated to our partners. Multilateral organisations also have an important role to play in this work.

Norway will work to strengthen partnerships between governments, multilateral organisations and institutions, civil society and the business sector at global and national levels in selected countries in order to achieve maximum effectiveness in the Government’s global education effort.

We will coordinate our bilateral and multilateral efforts as far as possible and build on existing partnerships and institutions. At the same time, we wish to involve new partners. We will seek to work with cooperation partners who have comparative strengths in the form of geographical proximity or technical expertise and capacity. Our choice of partners and channels will be based on a number of factors: 1) the presence of responsible government partners, 2) the involvement and relevance of the multilateral system, and 3) a Norwegian presence and Norwegian experience of cooperation in the education sector.

5.1 Global mobilisation and alliance-building

The UN plays an important role in mobilising international political support for common goals. If a global initiative for education is to succeed, it must be endorsed and coordinated at the highest UN level.

International conventions and norms, and the ability of the multilateral system to help countries meet their obligations, also need to be strengthened. We will continue to support and take part in designing reforms in the UN development system.

Norway will make use of strategic financial support to multilateral organisations to strengthen their technical expertise and relevance under their respective mandates and spheres of responsibility. Furthermore, to avoid fragmentation, duplication and competition between organisations, we will seek to engage them in joint programmes that require greater cooperation and coordination at global and national level. We will encourage the use of joint analyses and efforts to achieve common goals and an effective division of labour between organisations. This will include support for financial mechanisms that promote coordination in crisis situations, for example between humanitarian organisations and those with a development mandate. We will also promote cooperation between the UN system and the development banks.

Norway will assume a leadership role in the efforts to involve and motivate other bilateral donors to work strategically and in a coordinated fashion for the achievement of Millennium Development Goal 2, relating to universal primary education, and the education goals of the post-2015 development agenda. We will form partnerships with important bilateral donors such as the US, Germany, the UK and the Nordic countries, and also with new major donors.

A further reason for emphasising global political mobilisation is to muster resources. Funding for education has suffered in many countries as a result of the financial crisis. We need to motivate major donors, involve new partners, promote innovative financing, rationalise our efforts, promote predictability and encourage developing countries to increase their budgetary allocations to education.

Table 5.1 

Top 10 Funders of Basic Education, 2002–2011

2002

2003

2006

2007

2010

2011

1

World Bank (27 %), USD 810 million

World Bank (24 %), USD 789 million

World Bank (13 %), USD 612 million

Netherlands (13 %), USD 644 million

World Bank (12 %), USD 724 million

World Bank (14 %), USD 818 million

2

Netherlands (10 %), USD 285 million

United States (12 %), USD 394 million

Netherlands (12 %), USD 555 million

World Bank (12 %), USD 624 million

United States (11 %), USD 658 million

United Kingdom (12 %), USD 708 million

3

IMF (9 %), USD 272 million

Japan (7 %), USD 242 million

United Kingdom (11 %), USD 506 million

United Kingdom (11 %), USD 585 million

EU Institutions (10 %), USD 610 million

United States (10 %), USD 570 million

4

France (7 %), USD 199 million

United Kingdom (7 %), USD 234 million

EU Institutions (10 %), USD 458 million

United States (10 %), USD 513 million

United Kingdom (9 %), USD 533 million

EU Institutions (7 %), USD 418 million

5

United Kingdom (4 %), USD 150 million

France (6 %), USD 183 million

United States (9 %), USD 400 million

EU Institutions (8 %), USD 403 million

France (7 %), USD 406 million

Germany (7 %), USD 368 million

6

Germany (4 %), USD 127 million

IMF (5 %), USD 162 million

Japan (6 %), USD 279 million

Japan (6 %), USD 314 million

Japan (6 %), USD 355 million

UNWRA (6 %), USD 357 million

7

Japan (4 %), USD 127 million

Netherlands (5 %), USD 162 million

UNRWA (6 %), USD 276 million

France (6 %), USD 295 million

UNRWA (6 %), USD 352 million

France (5 %), USD 301 million

8

United States (4 %), USD 126 million

Germany (4 %), USD 140 million

Norway (4 %), USD 185 million

UNRWA

(5 %), USD 271 million

Germany (5 %), USD 339 million

Japan (4 %), USD 250 million

9

Norway (4 %), USD 117 million

Canada (4 %), USD 134 million

Canada (4 %), USD 166 million

Norway (5 %), USD 238 million

Netherlands (5 %), USD 337 million

Australia (4 %), USD 233 million

10

EU institutions (3 %), USD 100 million

Norway (4 %), USD 134 million

Germany (3 %), USD 154 million

Canada (4 %), USD 222 million

Canada (4 %), USD 255 million

Norway (4 %), USD 216 million

Sum of aid disbursed by five multilateral donors

(35 %), USD 1.05 billion

(31 %), USD 1.02 billion

(26 %), USD 1.18 billion

(23 %), USD 1.16 billion

(26 %), USD 1.61 billion

(26 %), USD 1.51 billion

Source Brookings report Investment in Global Education: A Strategic Imperative for Business.

Their mandates oblige UN organisations to seek to ensure that girls and children from vulnerable groups can start school and complete their schooling. They must also work to raise the quality of learning and for the development of relevant educational programmes. Under these conditions, Norway will continue to work with and through the multilateral system.

The Government will:

work to strengthen the UN’s normative and political leadership in the education field;

promote the Government’s global education effort through the multilateral system in accordance with the various organisations’ mandates, results achieved and comparative strengths, and seek to reduce fragmentation and overlapping in the multilateral architecture for aid to education;

include thematic earmarking of some of Norway’s multilateral support for education, such as contributions to multi-donor funds, in order to improve the effectiveness of multilateral organisations;

form strategic partnerships with other bilateral donors and motivate them to increase their support for education.

5.1.1 Global Education First Initiative (GEFI)

The Global Education First Initiative (GEFI) was launched by the UN Secretary-General in 2012 to intensify the focus on education and the efforts to meet MDG 2 (achieving universal primary education) and MDG 3 (promoting gender equality and empowering women). GEFI has three priorities: to put every child in school, to improve the quality of learning and to foster global citizenship. Former British prime minister Gordon Brown was appointed UN Special Envoy for Global Education, and the GEFI Secretariat under UNESCO cooperates closely with UNICEF.

Education Cannot Wait (ECW) is an advocacy working group whose aims are to ensure adequate funding for education in humanitarian emergencies, protection of education from attack, and emergency prevention and preparedness measures in education sector plans. The group is associated with GEFI.

The Government will:

seek to strengthen the level of involvement in GEFI and ECW in the global mobilisation effort for education.

5.1.2 UNESCO

UNESCO is the only UN organisation with a mandate specifically to bring education to the world. Its role is predominantly normative and it functions mainly as a knowledge bank. UNESCO does important work in a number of fields, including promotion of literacy, adult education, vocational training, lifelong learning and non-formal education. Another field is exploiting the links between technology and education, and the organisation has published Policy guidelines for mobile learning.

Norway’s partnership with UNESCO is influenced by these factors. We seek to ensure that the organisation fulfils its role in its focus areas and does not extend its efforts to areas where other organisations can do the job more effectively. Norway’s support for UNESCO’s educational activities promotes its role as a voice and a coordinator for the efforts to meet MDG 2 and the Education for All goals. Norway also supports the development and use of reliable statistics for measuring progress on the international education goals.

Textbox 5.1 UNESCO: the Education for All (EFA) movement

At the 1990 World Conference on Education for All, the participants pledged to make primary education available to all and to substantially reduce illiteracy by the end of the decade. However, by 2000 it was clear that progress towards these goals was too slow, and a framework for action was adopted at the World Education Forum in Dakar the same year. Six EFA goals were set out:

expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education;

ensuring that by 2015 all children have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality;

ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met;

achieving a 50 % improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015;

eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015;

improving all aspects of the quality of education.

UNESCO is coordinating the work to reach the EFA goals.

EFA Steering Committee

Norway is the current chair of the EFA Steering Committee. A major task of the Steering Committee is to discuss the development of the post-2015 education agenda. Its members represent UNESCO, UNICEF, the World Bank, UNFPA, the OECD, UNDP, the Global Partnership for Education, regional groups of member states, the E-9 Initiative (chaired by India)¹, the host country for the 2015 conference of the Global Education Forum (South Korea), civil society and the business sector.

Capacity Development for Education for All (CapEFA) – helping people help themselves

The six EFA goals are ambitious. If they are to be achieved, the countries will need a leadership and administrative agencies with the necessary competence and capacity, and also qualified teachers, funds and other resources. Poor countries tend to lack most of these resources.

The CapEFA programme, which is funded by the Nordic countries, supports projects in low-income countries that aim to strengthen the individual countries’ capacity to achieve the EFA goals. CapEFA is one of the most successful UNESCO programmes in the education field.

Teachers Task Force for EFA

At a High-Level Group Meeting on EFA in Oslo in December 2008, the creation of an international Task Force on Teachers for EFA was endorsed. The Task Force has highlighted the need for qualified teachers and calls for increased recruiting and training of teachers. UNESCO hosts the Task Force, with Norway and India currently co-chairing the Task Force Steering Committee.

1 The E-9 Initiative is a forum for a group of countries in the South to promote cooperation on achieving the EFA goals.

The Government will:

seek to strengthen UNESCO’s normative role in the educational field by setting requirements and providing technical and strategic assistance. Through our representation in UNESCO’s governing bodies, we will work to improve results reporting and cooperation with other relevant UN organisations, and promote a closer focus on areas where UNESCO has the clearest comparative strengths;

maintain a dialogue with UNESCO on acquiring more knowledge about and raising the quality of education for girls, as well as for children and young people in crisis situations;

seek to strengthen UNESCO’s efforts to improve educational quality, for example through the adoption of new technology, capacity-building, compiling statistics and monitoring developments in the educational field.

5.1.3 UNICEF

UNICEF’s mandate[46] is based on the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Accordingly, the organisation has adopted a broad approach to its efforts on behalf of children, which include safeguarding children’s rights to health, clean water, nutrition, education and protection. UNICEF is a global advocate of children's rights.

In addition to being an important norm-setter for children’s rights and integrated childhood development, UNICEF’s strength lies in specific action at country level. The vision of the organisation’s Strategic Plan for 2014–17 is to promote the rights of every child, in particular those of the most disadvantaged children, such as those with disabilities.

UNICEF is working to reduce the number of children who do not attend school and to increase the proportion of those who complete their primary education and go on to secondary school. In countries where girls’ education lags behind education for boys, UNICEF has developed strategies for improving school attendance and learning outcomes for girls from early childhood to adolescence.

UNICEF has a close dialogue with authorities and partners at country level. Norway has put emphasis on this approach when choosing the organisation as a key channel for our efforts in the education sector. Its presence in over 135 countries puts UNICEF in a unique position to contribute to the development of national education policies, legislation and systems, and to provide practical support to low-income countries and countries in crisis. Furthermore, the organisation gains experience that contributes to the global knowledge base.

In addition to the annual core contributions, Norway’s support to UNICEF takes the form of thematic support, programme and project cooperation, and humanitarian support. We will use our seat on the Executive Board to promote Norwegian priorities and improve documentation of results.

Through UNICEF, Norway is helping to finance the global network Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI), which is a driving force in the international efforts for gender equality in education.

The Government will:

maintain a high level of support for education through UNICEF, but at the same time expect improvements in results reporting;

maintain a close dialogue with UNICEF to ensure greater efforts in fields such as early childhood development, girls’ education, education for vulnerable groups and education in crisis situations;

through UNICEF, intensify Norway’s efforts to promote an integrated approach to early childhood development as a foundation for learning.

5.1.4 Global Partnership for Education

The Global Partnership for Education (GPE) is a multilateral partnership consisting of developing countries, donor governments, international organisations, the business sector, teachers, and civil society/NGOs. Norway has played a leading role in its establishment and development. Today the GPE is one of Norway’s most important channels for aid to education, and we are currently the fourth largest donor country. The GPE focus areas include girls’ education, education in conflict-affected and fragile states, educational quality, increased financing for education, and increased aid effectiveness, all of which are in line with Norwegian priorities.

The GPE is part of the effort to achieve MDG 2, universal primary education. It helps countries to develop and implement sound sector plans to provide good-quality primary education for all girls and boys. These plans are intended to outline ways of achieving improved access to schooling, more and better qualified teachers, better and more relevant learning materials and better assessment systems and tests to measure pupils’ progress. The GPE also works to improve coordination of the international support for education.

One of the main conditions for cooperation in the GPE is that the individual countries themselves assume the fundamental responsibility for planning and implementing the reforms necessary for achieving universal primary education. The GPE provides funding, advice and innovative solutions. In 2013, 59 developing countries were members of the GPE; 38 of them were in sub-Saharan Africa and 28 were fragile states.

The GPE’s efforts to increase educational capacity in developing countries enabled 21.8 million more children to attend primary school between 2002 and 2013. Of these, 10.1 million were girls. In addition 413 000 new teachers were recruited, 37 000 new classrooms were built and 220 million textbooks were purchased and distributed. In 2011, 71 % of children in conflict-affected GPE member states completed primary education, as opposed to 56 % in 2002. A 2010 evaluation showed that enrolment of children in primary schools was twice as high in countries that had received support from the GPE as in countries that had not received such support.

In addition to its efforts at country level, the GPE wields considerable influence at the international level and plays a key role in promoting a continued international focus on education.

The GPE is seeking to increase aid effectiveness so that better results can be achieved, and is therefore helping developing countries to give priority to education in their budgets and to seek support from other donors in addition to the GPE.

The GPE is intensifying its efforts to improve results reporting by partners, among other things by more direct use of results-based financing. The plan is for a certain share of the aid to a country to be transferred once results have been achieved.

The Government will:

take an active part in the further development of the GPE;

promote learning within the GPE in areas such as results-based financing and innovation;

increase Norway’s contribution to the GPE on condition that it delivers results.

5.2 Other multilateral arenas

As part of our global education effort, we will regularly review which channels best enable us to reach our goals in the priority areas.

5.2.1 International Labour Organization (ILO)

The ILO is an important partner in Norway’s efforts to promote decent work.

The organisation is a key channel for combating child labour. There are large numbers of children whose jobs prevent them from going to school. The ILO has made it clear that education and training are crucial to effectively eliminate child labour, and that eliminating child labour is vital if all children are to have the opportunity to go to school. The ILO’s International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), which was launched in 1992, is a worldwide programme that operates in 88 countries and is the world’s largest programme of its kind. UNICEF, UNDP, NGOs and companies are among the participants.

The ILO cooperates with member states on reforming and strengthening vocational education systems by linking competence-building with productivity, employment, development, decent work and green jobs. The organisation carries out statistical and qualitative research and policy and legal analyses, publishes guidelines for national policies and engages in technical cooperation. One of the ILO’s priorities in this field is providing young people with vocational education that meets the needs of the business sector.

The Government will:

intensify its support for the ILO’s efforts to strengthen vocational education and combat child labour through education.

5.2.2 World Food Programme (WFP)

WFP cooperates with governments, UNESCO, UNICEF and the World Bank on a programme for school meals. WFP provides school meals to 25 million children in 60 countries annually and helps national authorities develop their own school meals programmes. Through these programmes, 1.3 million girls and half a million boys receive a ration of food to take home to their families, with girls given priority as an incentive to encourage them to attend school. WFP considers it essential that the countries themselves have the capacity to implement school meals programmes, and offers technical advice on developing and running them.

WFP’s work for the provision of nutritious food to pregnant and nursing mothers and children under two is perhaps the most important of its efforts from a humanitarian perspective. It helps to ensure that children’s physical and cognitive development is not compromised.

The Government will:

support WFP and its efforts to improve nutrition among groups where this particularly promotes the healthy development needed for improved learning, especially in low-income and conflict-affected countries.

5.3 Development banks

The development banks are key sources of financing for development in general and education in particular. They play a central role in helping to provide good conditions for the education sector in developing countries through their support for economic governance, tax revenues and the efficient use of public funds.

5.3.1 World Bank Group

With its 8.9-billion-dollar portfolio and its projects in 70 countries, the World Bank Group is one of the largest partners in the education field. The Group helps countries achieve their education targets through financing and by providing analysis, advisory and technical services.

The Group’s 2011 education strategy emphasises the link between education and employment and gives priority to early childhood education and care, vocational education, quality, and efforts in fragile states. The Group especially seeks to support the development of integrated education sectors. Greater importance is being attached to results, and analytical tools have been developed to improve their measurement. Efforts are also being made to induce the developing countries themselves to invest more heavily in education.

The World Bank Group is at the forefront in promoting public–private partnerships for innovative development strategies in several fields, including education. The goal is to give young people the right qualifications for the labour market.

Norway supports the Multi-Donor Education and Skills Fund (MESF) through the World Bank Group. The Fund supports capacity-building in the post-primary education field at country and regional level in sub-Saharan Africa. It helps authorities and partners in the various countries to develop the knowledge and skills of the labour force, thereby promoting inclusive growth and competitiveness.

The World Bank Group would be a suitable partner for the establishment of a fund for the testing of results-based financing in education. In addition to the fact that the Group is the largest multilateral contributor in this field, its multi-donor trust fund in the health sector has already acquired useful experience in methodological development. The advantage of pilot testing under the auspices of the Group is that partners can cooperate on the choice of focus areas and countries, and results can be obtained more quickly than through other channels.

5.3.2 Regional development banks

The regional development banks are an important source of financing for the poorest countries in their respective regions. The banks’ local knowledge gives them legitimacy as development partners in national and regional efforts.

Asian Development Bank (ADB)

Education is one of the five core operational areas of the ADB’s 2020 strategy for reducing poverty and promoting inclusive development in Asia and the Pacific. Recently, in response to requests from recipient countries, the ADB has shifted its focus from primary to secondary and higher education and vocational training. Much of its support is directed at achieving higher levels of productivity, employment and innovation.

The ADB increasingly supports reforms in the education sector and the development of sector strategies, planning and leadership. Its support covers primary, secondary and higher education and vocational training, and at school level it has mainly concentrated on teacher training, development of teaching and learning materials and building of schools. Women, the poor and people from rural districts are priority groups. It has been found that the success of vocational training depends on close ties with the labour market. Evaluations show that the ADB has achieved good results in this sector and confirm that higher quality and improved access require comprehensive reforms, close cooperation with recipient countries and a long-term perspective.

A mid-term review of the ADB’s 2020 strategy has shown that its efforts in the education field need to be intensified.

African Development Bank (AfDB)

The AfDB has defined technology and vocational skills as a core operational priority in its strategy for 2013–2022. The aim is to promote inclusive growth and reduce the high unemployment rate in the region, especially among young people. The African member states want the Bank to intensify its efforts for secondary and vocational education, targeting both the formal and the informal sectors.

Norwegian support for the AfDB is particularly directed towards the 40 poorest countries in the region, around half of which are defined as fragile states.

Inter-American Development Bank (IDB)

Education has always been a priority for the IDB, and the Bank has shifted its focus from higher education to primary and secondary education and capacity-building, with particular emphasis on educational quality and the learning environment and on the transition from school to working life. The most disadvantaged are a target group. The IDB’s presence at country level and its knowledge of the culture and the region make it a key supplier of technical assistance and financial support in the education sector.

Norway provides fresh capital to the Bank and has supported the establishment of a Social Inclusion Trust Fund, which runs projects in the education sector.

The Government will:

strengthen cooperation with the World Bank Group and the regional development banks on the effective use of public funds, tax reform and giving priority to education in public budgets;

strengthen cooperation on education with the World Bank Group and the regional development banks in order to ensure that their efforts in this sector are as strong and as comprehensive as possible;

play a leading role in the establishment of a World Bank fund for testing results-based financing in education, in order to gain broader experience in the field.

5.4 Regional cooperation

Norway wishes to cooperate with regional organisations and networks that promote regional solutions and cooperation.

The political, security and development policy role of the African Union (AU) has been strengthened in recent years. Thus the organisation can be an important partner for Norway in our global education effort. The AU is strongly committed to improving girls’ education and empowering women.

Textbox 5.2 BRAC

One of the aims of the development NGO BRAC is to expand education opportunities for disadvantaged children through its primary schooling programme. In South Sudan the organisation offers safe drinking water, latrines and school meals using locally produced food as well as education. It provides assistance to the South Sudanese authorities in the area of teacher training, where the main priority group is women teachers. In Pakistan, the priority is to reach the very poorest children, mainly those from slum areas.

In Afghanistan, BRAC assists the authorities in their efforts to build capacity among teachers through various training programmes. This will also be a priority area in Myanmar. In Bangladesh, BRAC runs a vocational training programme specially aimed at helping adolescents gain access to the labour market. In Dhaka, the organisation manages its own university, which offers a midwife training programme.

The Government will:

conduct a close dialogue with the African Union with a particular focus on girls’ education. Cooperation with other regional and sub-regional organisations in Africa and elsewhere will be considered on an ongoing basis.

5.5 South–South cooperation

It is a goal for the Government in its development policy to promote comprehensive, effective South–South cooperation, including in the area of education.

Figure 5.1 The work of the Norwegian Mission Alliance in Vietnam: stimulation in early childhood is important.

Photo: Ken Opprann

It may be useful to facilitate transfer of the competence we have helped to develop in individual countries in the South to other countries where our global education effort is being implemented.

BRAC, which started in Bangladesh, has shown that South–South cooperation can be extremely effective. BRAC has grown into one of the world’s largest development NGOs, and has established major education programmes in a number of countries, including South Sudan, Pakistan and Afghanistan in addition to Bangladesh. The next step for the organisation will be Myanmar.

The Government will:

act as a catalyst for practical, results-oriented South–South cooperation.

5.6 Cooperation with private foundations, the business sector and civil society

One of the conditions for success in reaching the education goals is that all relevant partners contribute. Innovation and creative thinking are sorely needed at every level of the education sector, from projects in rural districts to the international community’s organisation of efforts to improve education. The business sector can deliver information technology that will make education more widely available and improve its quality. This means that we should increasingly involve private partners that can contribute knowledge adapted to conditions in developing countries.

Currently there are many good projects and initiatives being implemented by philanthropic organisations, civil society, the business sector and various funds and alliances. However, these activities are fragmented and there are few evaluations of the efficacy of the various measures.

The Government will:

work systematically to involve new cooperation partners in efforts to achieve the education goals. We will redouble our efforts to identify measures that yield good results and can be applied to other situations, and share this information.

5.6.1 Private foundations and philanthropists

Interested and dedicated individuals, foundations and trust funds can also be a source of funding, new technology and technology transfers. Successful partnerships with individuals or private foundations may also motivate other private donors to contribute.

Textbox 5.3 Cooperation with private actors

As part of Norway’s global health initiative, we have developed technical and financial cooperation with a number of private foundations, such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. This has grown out of an awareness that many problems are best solved through cooperation and that in some cases public–private partnerships are an effective way of providing targeted assistance. Often the different roles and tasks can create synergies. Interested and dedicated individuals or foundations and trust funds can sometimes affect the market, for example in the health sector, where private companies have helped to lower the price of vaccines.

Two good examples of philanthropists who are heavily involved in the education sector are the Aga Khan and Georges Soros. Another is the businessman Azim Premji, who has donated USD 2 billion to improving the quality of education in India. This is the equivalent of about half the annual global official development assistance for basic education.

The strengthening of results reporting is essential for attracting philanthropists to participate in the global efforts to improve education.

The Government will:

establish a dialogue with interested and dedicated individuals, institutions, foundations and trust funds in order to form new and innovative partnerships in the education field.

5.6.2 The business sector

The business sector can provide new technology that raises the quality of education and makes it more accessible. This is particularly important for ensuring that the education system contributes effectively to employment, job security and economic growth.

Textbox 5.4 Telenor Group and UNICEF

Telenor Group and UNICEF have signed a five-year global partnership agreement, which includes financial support and access to a range of mobile technology solutions.

‘The mobile industry has proven to have positive effects on economic and social welfare. It is our ambition to extend the benefits of telecommunications into all markets where we operate,’ said Telenor Group President and CEO, Jon Fredrik Baksaas, at the launch of the agreement. Anthony Lake, UNICEF’s Executive Director, stated that ‘Innovation has driven tremendous progress for children, not only by helping us reach the most remote and disadvantaged communities with critical services, but also by giving those communities and children new ways to improve their own lives and make their voices heard.’ Telenor Group and UNICEF had already been collaborating locally for several years, with a focus on education against child labour in Bangladesh.

A basic requirement of education in the 21st century is that it prepares people to participate in a knowledge-based economy. The use of electronic media in learning, e-learning, is a cornerstone in the building of an inclusive knowledge society. Mobile learning, or m-learning, refers to mobile units, such as handheld computers and tablets, MP3 players, smartphones and mobile phones, that support the learning process. This technology has enormous potential to revolutionise education and training, since the relevant services can be supplied anywhere in the world, thereby increasing the number of people with access to good-quality learning materials.

As discussed in Chapter 3, the Government will intensify its cooperation with the business sector. This will help to ensure that the Government’s global education effort is relevant to business, and that Norwegian development assistance funds will generate private funding and efforts.

Norwegian and multinational companies can provide financial support, services and goods. Strategies must be developed for joint and complementary measures that are effective and of high quality, while at the same time ensuring that the principles of development aid and sustainability are followed.

The Government will:

invite the business sector to engage in a close dialogue on how to forge links between Norwegian companies operating abroad and our global education effort, and how we can benefit from their experience;

engage in a dialogue with relevant partners in the information industry on incentives for the development of technological solutions that will give more children access to good-quality education.

5.6.3 Civil society

Civil society can play an important role in the efforts to achieve the education goals in every country, by implementing programmes that stimulate cognitive development in early childhood, managing schools and other educational institutions, keeping a critical eye on whether good-quality education is available to children and young people, and playing a major role as driving force and agent for change at local, national and global level. For example, religious communities run schools in many countries.

Through its use of innovative methods, civil society plays an especially important role in efforts to reach the most vulnerable groups of children and young people. There has been a favourable trend in recent years towards closer cooperation between NGOs and local authorities in these efforts. In a number of countries, the innovative methods introduced by organisations have later been incorporated into national plans and strategies.

Civil society can play a critical role in providing education for children and young people in crisis- and conflict-affected countries where the authorities themselves have insufficient capacity. Examples of organisations that have adopted innovative and flexible solutions in this respect are the Norwegian Refugee Council and Save the Children Norway. Even though ideal solutions are not always possible, there is great value in providing access to and continuity in schooling, or even simply giving these children a safe place to play.

The Norwegian Refugee Council and Save the Children Norway are currently the largest Norwegian NGO partners of Norwegian authorities for providing education during humanitarian crises. In order to strengthen Norway’s efforts, the Government entered into a three-year framework agreement with Save the Children Norway last year on education in emergencies. The main aim of the agreement is to help ensure that children in emergencies have access to good-quality education during and immediately after a crisis. The agreement also enables Save the Children Norway to assume a co-leadership role along with UNICEF in the IASC Education Cluster, coordinating education efforts in humanitarian crises.

Organisations that are firmly established in the local community are often able to strengthen parental involvement in education. Experience has shown that involving civil society organisations and parent groups in schooling promotes engagement and participation, as a result of which the authorities are more likely to be held accountable for fulfilling their responsibilities. In addition, demands by civil society actors for transparency in national and local budget allocations help combat corruption.

NGOs also help to improve the quality of education by organising other activities in connection with schools, including informal instruction in fields such as health, human rights, comprehensive sexuality education and vocational education, and also games and sport. Such activities often serve as incentives for children to start and stay in school. One example of this is the organisation Right to Play, which in cooperation with the educational authorities in the countries concerned uses games and sport to teach the children life lessons that are also relevant to national education plans. Another example is the Norwegian Confederation of Sports, which uses sport as a tool for developing social skills, to teach children about their rights, and to strengthen their ability to make independent choices and develop a healthy lifestyle.

However, it is important that NGOs’ activities strengthen national structures rather than building up parallel systems.

Norwegian NGOs work through local partners, for example in delivering services, and play a proactive role in the educational field. Several of these organisations have considerable expertise and long experience. Many have participated actively in campaigns for achieving MDGs and Education for All goals. They also serve as an important channel for Norwegian support for education. In 2013, around 25 % of Norway’s bilateral aid to education, both long-term education programmes and activities in crisis-affected countries, was channelled through NGOs.

Textbox 5.5 Examples of activities run by NGOs

The Karamojong people in Uganda have had little access to schooling. In 1998, only 12 % of the population of the Karamoja region had basic literacy skills. The community had no faith in state schools or in an education they considered irrelevant to their lives as herders. In cooperation with a number of other organisations, Save the Children Norway has provided children and young people in the region with an alternative, more flexible education programme. As a result, 265 000 children have been able to attend school since the programme was launched in 1998. The children’s learning outcomes have been above the national average, and the model has been included in the new Ugandan education act.

The Strømme Foundation’s speed schools were established to help fragile states in Sahel to achieve MDG 2 on education. These schools were started in Mali in 2004 and in Niger and Burkina Faso in 2006. The target group is children who have been forced to leave primary school or who have never had the opportunity to start. In the period 2009–13, almost 89 000 children attended speed schools in these three countries. In Mali and Niger at least 80 % of them were able to transfer to ordinary schools, while the percentage for Burkina Faso was somewhat lower. The proportion of children from speed schools who complete their ordinary schooling is higher than that of those who have only attended ordinary schools. This group also scores higher on educational tests. The authorities in the respective countries have now integrated speed schools into their national education plans. The programmes are supported by Norway.

The Government will:

strengthen innovation in the education field through Norwegian, international and local NGOs, especially in terms of quality and in the context of humanitarian crisis situations;

strengthen the work of NGOs in delivering education services that will ensure all children a good-quality education. Special priority will be given to girls, vulnerable groups, crisis-affected countries and other fragile states.

5.7 Bilateral cooperation

Norway has pursued bilateral cooperation on education and sector programmes in a number of countries. The proportion of bilateral aid has been reduced in recent years, but our experience and considerable expertise still form a sound basis for further efforts.

At country level, the question of whether to engage in direct bilateral cooperation or to support other efforts, for example through multilateral organisations, will always be considered in relation to a Norwegian presence, the local situation and the need to focus on fewer countries. Where appropriate, we channel support through NGOs. In some cases we use more than one channel for the same country.

Multilateral support makes it possible to streamline administration, strengthens coordination and makes development cooperation more effective. On the other hand, bilateral cooperation can offer advantages in the form of closer contact with expert and political networks in the recipient country, learning from our own direct efforts, and greater knowledge about the culture and the people. It also gives Norway more direct influence and greater visibility. The question of what Norway can bring to the cooperation will be carefully considered for each country.

Figure 5.2 At school in Malawi.

Photo: Jan Håkon Olsson

In countries where we go in bilaterally, we will enter into partnerships with the national authorities and appropriate multilateral, private- and public-sector actors. Where the national authorities have moved education higher up the agenda and increased budget allocations, this will be considered a sound basis for partnership. We will seek to ensure that our efforts are relevant in other situations as well, and share the experience we have gained from our bilateral cooperation.

Norway will focus its support on a few selected countries that show political will and leadership by giving priority to education and vocational training in national plans and budgets, particularly countries that are seeking to reach children and young people who are poor or vulnerable in other ways. At the same time, we will give weight to the authorities’ willingness to provide favourable conditions for value creation in the business sector. Support will be allocated in accordance with national plans and procedures, thereby enabling the country to improve its capacity to make its own strategic long-term choices. We will use our influence to ensure as far as possible that assistance is concentrated on areas and groups with the greatest problems, and will make it clear that Norwegian educational support is not intended to replace the country’s own efforts in the sector, but to reinforce them. In crisis-affected countries and other fragile states where we aim to reach vulnerable groups, we will employ the most suitable channels in each case.

Regardless of which channel is being used, our embassies will follow country-level activities where Norway is involved. There will be a greater emphasis on results. Norway will also help to coordinate international education efforts at country level in focus countries.

Textbox 5.6 Malawi

Malawi is one of the countries that has suffered most from the global reduction in development aid to education, but it does have a functioning group of donors who have regular meetings with the authorities.¹

In 2010, the World Bank, Germany, the GPE, the UK and UNICEF concluded agreements on co-financing Malawi’s sector programme for education. The World Bank has been responsible for administering its own and the GPE’s contributions. At present, however, it is unclear how the programme will be financed in the future. Germany has expressed a wish to consolidate its portfolio and intensify the focus on improving educational quality and teacher training. The UK is currently supporting a major programme for girls’ education, but is considering concentrating its efforts on higher education. The major part of the support provided by the World Bank, Japan and the AfDB is devoted to higher education. UNICEF, WFP and UNFPA support primary education in particular districts. A more coherent and coordinated effort is greatly needed, and Norway would be able to help with this.

1 EFA Global Monitoring Report 2013/4.

Although progress is being made in education at the global level, many African countries are lagging behind. Sub-Saharan Africa will therefore be given high priority in the Government’s global education effort. It may also be appropriate to give priority to low-income countries in other regions as well.

We will identify a small group of pilot countries as a focus for intensified efforts, including bilateral efforts, on the basis of the following criteria: that there is strong national ownership of the education sector, and that priority is being given to vocational training and the most vulnerable groups. Norwegian funding will include support for capacity-building and systems development. Our efforts will be ambitious and will include policy areas that influence and are influenced by education. Extra resources will be allocated to these pilot countries to enable them to reach predefined goals in the education sector. Concrete, measurable results will be emphasised. Partnerships may be formed with more than one actor, for example authorities, multilateral organisations, civil society and the business sector. Norwegian expertise will be used as a resource where appropriate. The plan is to launch bilateral cooperation in these pilot countries in 2015.

Table 5.2 Norwegian development aid to education by recipient country, 2013 (NOK million)

Recipient country

Total

Uganda

73

Syria

66

Somalia

56

Madagascar

47

Burundi

42

Afghanistan

38

South Sudan

37

Palestine

35

Nepal

33

Ethiopia

24

Total, 10 largest recipients

451

¹ Includes support to individual countries channelled through multilateral organisations and other actors.

The Government will:

organise bilateral cooperation in a way that maximises synergies between the various efforts, upholds the responsibility of recipient countries and ensures that the requirements for aid effectiveness are met;

promote the development of effective cooperation arrangements at country level and consider assuming responsibility for coordination of GPE activities in selected focus countries;

launch a special education effort in a limited group of pilot countries that will be chosen for their strong national efforts in the education field and the priority they give to vulnerable groups;

seek to ensure that all children in the pilot countries are able to complete primary education, that as many as possible, especially girls, complete secondary education, and that the education is of good quality and relevant to the labour market.

6 Looking ahead

Education does not guarantee political, social or economic sustainability. However, no country has eradicated poverty, promoted business development, prevented conflict or provided good health services to the population without a focus on education.

The Government has based this white paper on the principle that knowledge is not only an individual or a national good; it is also a global public good. We will all benefit from the provision of relevant education for all. This will enhance job creation, economic growth, global health, democratic development, protection of human rights and conflict prevention.

Education efforts in international development cooperation have slowed down, with serious consequences. It is also cause for concern that not enough has been done to reach vulnerable groups, such as girls, minorities, disabled children and children who are affected by crises and conflicts. This gives cause for concern, and is a major obstacle in the fight against poverty and discrimination.

In this white paper, the Government commits itself to being a driving force in the effort to ensure that education is a high priority in developing countries and in international development cooperation, both politically and financially. This means that education will once again be a priority area in Norway’s development cooperation with countries in the South. The white paper describes which target groups will be given priority and why. It emphasises that Norwegian efforts are not to relieve countries of their responsibility for their own development. With this in view, it examines the tools that we can use to achieve the best possible results. Of particular interest are the opportunities that new technology offers for reaching our goals better and faster than was possible before. Some results will be achieved in the short term, while others, that require structural changes or the development of new methods, will require a more long-term perspective.

Our vision is that all children and young people, regardless of where in the world they live, can be sure of an education. But our ambitions go further than that: we want everyone to receive a good, relevant education. The Government therefore attaches importance to educational quality that can be measured. Norway’s efforts will seek to make it easier for young people to make the transition from school to working life, thus promoting employment and economic development.

Our main partners in this effort are those who are its main target group: children and young people, and adults who have not completed school. We will join forces with the authorities in recipient countries, multilateral organisations, other donor countries, NGOs and the business and private sector. Our goals will be reached through a joint effort.

This white paper marks the start of a major strategic endeavour and the Government invites Norwegian society to take part in dialogue on this work.

Advising

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs

recommends:

that the recommendation from the Ministry of the Foreign Affairs concerning education for development dated 13 June 2014 should be submitted to the Storting.

Fotnoter

1)

In Norway, ‘basic education’ refers to compulsory 10-year schooling for children aged 6–16. Other countries may define ‘basic education’ differently. In Norway, the education system has four levels: primary school (years 1-7); lower secondary school (years 8–10); upper secondary school (years 11–13); and higher education. The structure of the education system will vary from country to country, and these terms may thus be used differently.

2)

UNESCO’s Global Monitoring Report (GMR) 2013/4. Based on data from 2011, these are the most recent figures available.

3)

GMR 2013/14.

4)

GMR 2013/4.

5)

GMR 2013/4.

6)

GMR 2013/4.

7)

Established during the World Conference on Education for All, and revised at the World Education Forum in Dakar in 2000. Consists of six goals and a framework for action.

8)

See, for instance, Romer, Lucas and Barro.

9)

Global Monitoring Report (GMR), 2013/4.

10)

‘General Education, Vocational Education, and Labor-Market Outcomes over the Life-Cycle,’ Hanushek, EA et al., Institute for the Study of Labor, 2 Discussion Paper No. 6083, Bonn, Germany, October 2011.

11)

Education at OECD. Core Findings and Policy Directions, OECD, 2009.

12)

Article 13.

13)

See Table 1.1 and footnote 7.

14)

GMR 2013/4.

15)

EFA GMR 2012, Norad’s results report 2013.

16)

EFA GMR, 2013/4 Gender Summary, and Girls’ Education – the facts, UNESCO/GMR.

17)

Brookings.

18)

GMR, 2013/4.

19)

GMR 2013/14, table, p. 76.

20)

ILO 2014.

21)

Education First, an initiative of the United Nations Secretary-General (2012).

22)

Majgaard and Mingat, 2012.

23)

UNESCO 2013.

24)

The 2013 State of World Population report of the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) is called ‘Motherhood in Childhood – facing the challenge of adolescent pregnancy’.

25)

Chapter 6, Giving Girls a Chance: An Agenda for Action, in the UNFPA report on child marriage, pp 51–52.

26)

Girls’ education – the facts, UNESCO website, October 2013.

27)

World Bank.

28)

GMR 2013/4.

29)

World Bank blog, ‘Working to Meet Africa’s Skyrocketing Demand for Higher Education’, Ritva Reinikka, 4 June 2013.

30)

General Education, Vocational Education, and Labor-Market Outcomes over the Life-Cycle, Hanushek, EA et al., Institute for the Study of Labor, 2 Discussion Paper No. 6083, Bonn, Germany, October 2011.

31)

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 93 million children under 14, or 5.1 % of the world’s children, have ‘moderate or severe disability’. Of these, 13 million, or 0.7 % of the world’s children experience ‘severe disability’.

32)

More than 75 % of Syrian children do not go to school. Lebanon now hosts one million refugees from Syria. That is equivalent to 25 % of Lebanon’s population. Among these, nearly 400 000 are school-age children, and the Lebanese school system was already under severe strain.

33)

GMR 2013/4, UNICEF 2013.

34)

Developed by the Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack.

35)

Global Monitoring Report, 2013/4 (p. 133).

36)

Based on OCHA’s Financial Tracking Service.

37)

GMR 2013/4.

38)

John Hattie, Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-analyses Relating to Achievement, Taylor & Francis, 2009.

39)

Psacharopoulos, 1985.

40)

Includes research.

41)

Programme for promoting economically, environmentally and socially responsible management of petroleum resources.

42)

Development of power production, transmission and distribution lines, and capacity development in the energy sector.

43)

Psacharopoulos (1985).

44)

http://www.displaysearch.com/pdf/140206_global_tablet_pc_shipments_to_reach_455_million_by_2017.pdf; http://www.displaysearch.com/cps/rde/xchg/displaysearch/hs.xsl/120703_tablet_shipments_to_surpass_notebook_shipments_in_2016.asp

45)

The OECD-DAC member states (OECD donor countries) agreed on five principles for aid effectiveness in Paris in 2005. The Accra Agenda for Action has a broader scope than the Paris Declaration, and includes areas such as human rights, gender equality and fragile states. In 2011 the Busan Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation was formed and agreed on the common principles set out in the Busan Declaration.

46)

http://www.unicef.org/about/who/index_mission.html.