Meld. St. 25 (2013-2014)

Education for Development

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2 Why focus on education?

In addition to being an engine for economic growth and a prerequisite for development, education is a human right and vital to the individual’s personal development.

There is not equal access to education in today’s world. Access to, completion of and quality of education are unevenly distributed within and between countries. Through political engagement and development cooperation, Norway can be a driving force in the efforts to ensure access to good, relevant and inclusive learning.

The significance of such a boost for education is amplified by the global information economy, with its ever-increasing demands for a well-educated population, where the threshold for exclusion from the labour market is steadily being lowered. In a global context, a low level of qualifications in developing countries is increasing the gap between rich and poor countries. In order to contribute to economic growth, equal opportunities, and the realisation of universal rights and development, it is important and appropriate that Norway helps to reduce the gap between rich and poor both within and between countries by focusing on education in development policy.

2.1 Education as a prerequisite for economic growth

Research shows a positive correlation between education and economic growth. In order to develop and to experience economic growth, a country needs an educated labour force. This applies to both the public and the private sector.

Productivity growth augments economic growth. A number of studies have shown that improving the quality of education boosts productivity and means higher returns for the individual in the form of salary, career and social mobility. In developing countries, this effect can be observed even at the primary school level, as literacy and numeracy skills are fundamental for an individual’s productivity.

According to the white paper on the perspectives for the Norwegian economy (2013), most of the productivity growth in Norway in recent years can be attributed to education, research, innovation and more efficient organisation of work. Modern theories of economic growth describe how an economy can experience greater growth than can be explained by the input factors alone, through better organisation of society and by increasing the skills of the labour force.1 New technologies in themselves can increase efficiency, but knowledge is needed to be able to use the new technology effectively.

Substantial economic gains can be made by educating marginalised groups, and even more by educating adults who did not acquire fundamental literacy and numeracy skills in their childhood.2 It has been estimated that for each extra year of schooling completed by the population in a low-income country, the country’s GNP increases by 0.37 %.3 Investing in relevant learning for all can therefore be seen as an engine for economic growth and social development, particularly during recessions and in situations of transition, for instance as a result of climate change.

Hanushek and Woessmann (2009) find an even stronger correlation between the quality of a country’s education and its economic growth than do researchers who use quantitative measures for education, although the latter also have significant explanatory power. This is mainly due to the strong correlation between the number of years of schooling and the level of knowledge. However, it is the quality of the education and the skills acquired that determine the significance of education for productivity and growth. This applies particularly in developing countries.

At the same time, we know that a sound, nationally embedded educational system is necessary for quality education services and thus for economic growth and development. South Korea and China are recent examples of countries that have systematically invested in high-quality universal education, and that have achieved strong economic growth.

There are clear links between the labour market and the availability of an educated work force. If the inhabitants are to be willing to invest in education, they must have expectations of getting jobs or positions where that education can be useful. At the same time, the labour market and employers are dependent on the availability of people with the required skills and education to fill vacant positions.

Textbox 2.1 South Korea and Ghana

In the 1970s, South Korea and Ghana had similar per capita incomes. In both countries, around 40 % of the population was enrolled in secondary education. South Korea increased its funding for education in the 1970s, and by the late 1990s achieved nearly universal secondary schooling. Ghana invested less than 2 % of its GNP in education in the 1980s, while South Korea invested around 4 %. During the same period, education efforts in South Korea were linked to broader strategies to stimulate the economy.1 In 2012, the national per capita income in South Korea was about 16 times higher than in Ghana.2 Since many factors influence economic growth, we cannot conclude that this difference is solely due to investment in education, but it is an important part of the explanation.

1 Building Human Capital in East Asia: What Others Can Learn, Jandhyala B. G. Tilak, 2002.

2 Global Monitoring Report, UNESCO, (pp. 205-207), 2012.

According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), increasing income disparities slow economic growth, while education is a means of reducing these disparities. Estimates show that a 1 % difference in adult literacy between countries means a 2.5 % difference in productivity and a 1.5 % difference in per capita GDP.4

History shows that no country can achieve sustainable economic growth without an educated population. Good literacy and numeracy skills are a prerequisite for the lifelong learning that enables individuals to adapt to increasingly rapid changes. Lifelong learning increases the likelihood of people being able to create a secure and predictable daily life, to adapt to new technologies and to be responsible parents and citizens. In this light, investments in global education are a catalyst for economic growth. In order to mobilise increased investment in education, there is a need to increase awareness of the link between education and economic growth and development.

2.2 The right to education

Human rights are internationally adopted standards that constitute a common, normative framework for all countries. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the right to education of good quality, and that it should be compulsory and free, at least at the primary school level.

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights confirms the right to education and the principles of universal, free and non-discriminatory primary education.5 Education should strengthen the respect for human rights and promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among peoples. According to the Covenant, secondary and higher education should be made available and accessible to all, without discrimination, to the greatest degree a country’s economy allows. Irrespective of the resources available, countries must prohibit discrimination on the basis of ethnicity, colour, gender, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth or other status.

Figure 2.1 Schoolgirls in Nepal in deep concentration

Figure 2.1 Schoolgirls in Nepal in deep concentration

Photo: Ken Opprann

The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child also affirms the right to education in Articles 28 and 29. Article 29 states that education should promote the development of the child’s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities. In addition, education should foster respect for the natural environment, for the child’s own culture, and for the cultures of others.

Article 3.3 of ILO Convention No. 138 on the minimum age for admission to employment and work states that young people are not allowed to work until they have completed compulsory schooling, and not earlier than the age of 15. The minimum age may be lowered to 14 in countries whose economy and education services are insufficiently developed. Article 7 of ILO Convention No. 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour states that each member state is to implement measures to prevent child labour in light of the importance of education.

Three other UN conventions require the countries that have ratified them to recognise the right to education for all: the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

The right to education means, according to resolutions in the UN General Assembly, that states that have ratified one or more of the conventions that refer to the right to education are obliged to recognise, respect, protect and fulfil this right.

The obligation to respect and safeguard the right to education means that states must avoid measures that restrict the right to education, and must intervene if a third party tries to undermine this right. For example, a state must not prevent the children of ethnic minorities from going to school.

The obligation to fulfil the right to education means that states must implement measures that enable the population to realise this right. This means not only providing education services, but also providing conditions that enable people to make use of these services, and not least ensuring that the whole population has access to primary education on a non-discriminatory basis.

The human rights perspective places the issues of power structures, central government responsibility, non-discrimination, quality, and meaningful learning at the centre of efforts to promote education.

Educational programmes based on human rights standards also strengthen other human rights. The UN points out that all human rights are interlinked. When one of them is realised, it is easier to promote the others; likewise, when one right is weakened, other rights are negatively affected. People who cannot read and write often experience violations of other rights. Economic, social and cultural rights can be strengthened considerably by realising the right to education. Education can lift people out of the poverty trap. The right to an adequate standard of living, which includes the rights to food, water and shelter, is more likely to be met when the right to education is fulfilled. This is an important platform for Norway’s engagement in global education.

2.3 The current situation

Although the significance of education for economic growth and development is well established, education has not been given high enough priority in Norwegian aid in recent years. Unfortunately, the proportion of Norwegian aid allocated to education decreased from 13.3 % in 2005 to 7.2 % in 2013.6 The same trend can be seen internationally. The world is not currently able to mobilise enough funding to meet the need for education. International aid for education has stagnated since 2008;7 the funding is too fragmented and the amount too low to provide the necessary strategic boost. There is thus a need for unified global leadership in this field. Moreover, the international community’s focus on primary education has resulted in less attention being paid to other areas, such as education for young people, quality of education, and learning outcomes. What is needed is a coherent approach, with an eye to continuity between the levels of education, and a focus on quality and learning outcomes at all levels.

At the same time, developing countries have been giving more priority to education in their fiscal budgets. On average, low-income countries have increased domestic financing of education by 7.2 % annually since 1999.8

Textbox 2.2 Mali

During the past ten years, increasing numbers of children have gained access to education in Mali. More than 60 % of all children between the ages of 5 and 15 have access to and attend school. However, there is still a considerable difference between girls and boys. On average, equal numbers of girls and boys are enrolled in primary school, but figures from UNICEF show that while 62 % of the boys complete this level, only 55 % of the girls do so.

Many schools have been closed for the past two years because of the military coup and conflict in the country, particularly in northern Mali. In addition, serious drought, a food crisis and flooding have prevented children from attending school. Some 800 000 school age children have not had access to adequate schooling. Mali’s infrastructure is poor, there are too few trained teachers and not enough teaching materials. Mali is completely dependent on aid to be able to implement its education plans. UNICEF has launched a plan to get 500 000 children and 9 000 teachers back to school. This includes the large groups of children who are living in refugee camps in Mauritania, Burkina Faso and Niger.

Primary education

International aid for primary education was doubled from 2003 to 2008 in response to MDG 2. Meanwhile, the number of children worldwide not attending school was reduced from 108 million in 1999 to 57 million in 2011, despite vast population growth.

However, there are considerable differences between regions and between countries, and between population groups within a single country. Major challenges still need to be addressed before all children are able to begin and – not least – complete primary school. Although many countries have made efforts to get children enrolled, the fact that many children are still not attending school is a protracted, serious problem, especially in Africa and South Asia.

The problems are particularly great in sub-Saharan Africa, although there are variations within the region. More than half of the children worldwide (52 %) who are not attending school live in this region.

One of the targets for MDG 3 (promote gender equality and empower women) is to eliminate gender disparity in primary education by 2005, and in all levels of education by 2015. According to the most recent UNDP Millennium Development Goals Report, the target of gender parity in primary schools has been reached, but with considerable variation between countries and regions. At the same time, we know that nearly one fourth of the young women aged 15 to 24 in developing countries have not completed primary school and lack the fundamental skills needed to get a job.9

Textbox 2.3 Nepal

Nepal is near the top of the league in terms of progress towards MDG 2 on universal primary education. From 1992 to 2012, the number of children enrolled in primary schools increased by 1.7 million, and the share of girls increased from 38 % to 50 %. However, the 2011 census showed that an estimated 500 000 children between the ages of 5 and 15 were not attending school. Many drop out before they finish primary school. The percentage of those out of school increases with age, and girls are overrepresented at all grade levels. Moreover, national tests show that for girls there are large gaps in the skills acquired. Targeted efforts are being made to strengthen the inclusion of vulnerable groups in the education system in Nepal. A major challenge in the years ahead will be to raise the quality of and access to education above the primary school level.

Improved access to primary school has created the impression that the education MDG has done fairly well, and thus does not need as much attention as the other goals. From 2009 to 2012, global aid for primary education fell by 16 %.10 The decline in sub-Saharan Africa, where half of all out-of-school children live, was a massive 25 %, although this is partly because some countries have themselves assumed greater responsibility for education. At the same time, we know that in addition to the challenges posed by having so many children out of school, 250 million of 650 million school-aged children have left primary school without basic literacy and numeracy skills. About 130 million of them have completed four years of schooling without learning elementary skills, while the remaining 120 million did not complete fourth grade. There is a need to ensure not only enrolment – but also the overall quality of schooling.

Figure 2.2 Global Education Financing Gap

Figure 2.2 Global Education Financing Gap

Source: UNESCO: Education for All Global Monitoring Report Youth and Skills: Putting Education at Work, 2012.

Young people and adults

Many developing countries have high rates of economic growth without this resulting in satisfactory employment growth and poverty reduction. People in poor countries have limited educational opportunities, and those that exist are often inadequate or irrelevant for finding work. Too few begin to study at universities and colleges. African countries generally have little to offer in terms of vocational training, as regards both quality and quantity. Existing vocational and technical schools are often poor and not in tune with the needs of businesses and employment opportunities. At the same time, vocational training often has low status in developing countries, and it can be more expensive to provide than academic courses.

Vast numbers of young people are without work, and the pressure is mounting due to rapid population growth. Many more will reach working age in the coming 10–15 years, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where the number of young people will double by 2045.

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimates that the labour force above the age of 15 will increase by 13.3 million annually for all of Africa between 2014 and 2020. Jobs in the formal sector are in short supply, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. This means that many people have to create their own jobs.

Many developing countries would now like to give priority to vocational education. The need for more and better vocational training has been emphasised in many contexts by UNESCO, the World Bank and the High-Level Panel on the post-2015 development agenda. More also needs to be done to make it easier for people to set up businesses. It is particularly important that more girls can choose vocational training.

Illiteracy

There are 774 million illiterate adults in the world. Two-thirds of them are women, and of the total number of adult women worldwide, nearly one-fourth are illiterate.11

Whereas there has been general progress in getting more children to attend school, efforts to reduce illiteracy have made little headway. The fight against adult illiteracy has received too little attention and support. If nothing is done to change the situation, it is expected that a large proportion of the world’s adults living in poverty will remain illiterate for generations to come. The situation is particularly grave in certain sub-Saharan countries.

Table 2.1 Norwegian ODA1 for education by level, 2012–2013 (in NOK million)

DAC Primary sector

2012

% distribution

2013

% distribution

111 – Education, level unspecified

279

17 %

336

20 %

112 – Basic education

1 058

66 %

1 100

65 %

113 – Secondary education

45

3 %

30

2 %

114 – Post-secondary education

231

14 %

223

13 %

Total

1 612

100 %

1 690

100 %

Total ODA

18 947

8.5 %

23 588

7.2 %

1 Not including core funding to multilateral organisations.

Girls

Despite progress, much remains to be done to ensure that girls have access to – and complete – primary and lower secondary school. Of the 57 million children not attending primary school, 31 million are girls. There are 65 million girls who are not in primary or lower secondary school. A large proportion of them live in sub-Saharan Africa or in South or West Asia.

There is a tendency for fewer girls than boys to start lower and upper secondary school in low-income countries. In sub-Saharan Africa, 82 girls for every 100 boys were enrolled in lower and upper secondary school in 1999. By 2011, this ratio had only increased to 83 girls per 100 boys.12

Girls are still in a clear minority in higher education, although there are considerable regional variations. In Latin America, South-East Asia and North Africa, more young women than men take higher education, while in sub-Saharan Africa women are under-represented. There, the ratio has dropped from 66 women per 100 men in 2000, to 61 women per 100 men in 2011.

One of the reasons why many girls do not attend school, or drop out after just a few years, is poverty. Poor families often have to set priorities that do not favour their daughters’ education. Many girls also leave school when they reach puberty because of poor sanitation facilities. In some countries, a lack of female teachers can be another reason why girls do not start school. Sexual harassment and violence against girls at school or on their way to school is a significant problem. When this occurs, families often choose not to send their girls to school.

Vulnerable groups

Within countries, the groups that most often have no access to education are: girls, working children, disabled children, children with minority backgrounds (such as indigenous groups and nomads) and children who live in remote areas. About half of all out-of-school children live in fragile and conflict-affected countries. Many of them are internally displaced or refugees. Being a girl can in itself lead to discrimination, and girls from poor families and from various marginalised groups often face double discrimination.

A common factor for these groups of children often is that they tend to come from poor families. It can be difficult for these families to send their children to school, because the children contribute to the family’s income, because schooling entails expenses, and because going to school does little to improve the children’s ability to work in agriculture and food production, which are the dominant source of income in many countries.

Although child labour is still widespread in many areas, there have been favourable developments globally since 2000, when there were 246 million child labourers. The situation is most serious in some sub-Saharan countries, where one fourth of the children aged 7 to 15 work. There are even indications that the problem is increasing in certain African countries that are experiencing economic growth.13

Children from poor families often start school late – if they begin at all – and they are at greater risk of not completing school. Studies show a drop-out rate of 38 % among those who started school two or more years later than the usual age for starting school. Poor health and poor diet, as well as dangers or difficulties on the way to school, are contributory factors.

2.4 Education as a catalyst for development

Economic growth is a prerequisite for development, but an inclusive society with room for all is essential for sustainable development. Universal access to an education that is adapted to the situation and the needs of learners lays the groundwork for development that will benefit both the individual and society.

People who receive an education acquire fundamental knowledge and skills and are given the tools and the inspiration to participate in society. Knowledge and education build trust between people and in social institutions. They are the most important instruments in the fight against religious and political fanaticism, and in combating corruption and exploitation.

2.4.1 Education is important for business and employment

The fundamental framework for business development and growth are: good governance, compliance with the principles of the rule of law, legislation that ensures a good investment climate, and access to financing and a skilled workforce.

Education is often required for participation in the labour market. Well-educated young people have the best prospects of finding stable employment or creating their own jobs. Perhaps even more important than the actual knowledge gained at school is the ability to acquire further knowledge and skills later through further education and/or at the workplace. For instance, the capacity to acquire new knowledge will have significance for a society’s ability to exploit the economic potential that lies in the global transition to green growth.

An obstacle to business development in many countries today is that young people who have completed primary education lack both the skills and the opportunities to pursue further education or find paid work. This can lead to social problems, political unrest and persistent poverty, as well as preventing the development of conducive conditions for business development.

In its report Global Employment Trends 2012, the ILO points out that the creation of new jobs is essential for development. Worldwide, there will be a need for 600 million new jobs by 2020.

2.4.2 Education is important in the fight against poverty

The UN has estimated that if all children in low-income countries left school with basic reading skills, 171 million people would have the skills they need to work their way out of poverty. This would reduce world poverty by 12 %.14 For example, the proportion of people living in poverty in East Asia and the Pacific sank from 56 % in 1990 to 12.5 % in 2012, partly due to investments in education for all. Investing in education has also helped Brazil to lift millions of people out of poverty. A study from sub-Saharan Africa showed that the risk of being poor was reduced from 46 % among those without an education, to 28 % among those who had completed six years of school.15

Population growth is high in low-income countries. The World Bank has estimated that given the current growth rates, more than 70 % of those living in extreme poverty in 2030 will be in sub-Saharan Africa. Nearly half of the population in many of the poorest countries are children and young people.

In sub-Saharan Africa, the average fertility rate among uneducated women is 6.7 births per woman. Among women who have completed primary school, the corresponding figure is 5.8, dropping to 3.9 among those who have completed lower secondary school.

Education is a key factor in combating poverty, but at the same time, poverty reduction is crucial if children are to be able to attend school instead of having to work to support their family. This means that integrating education into plans to reduce poverty in developing countries can be a good investment.

Figure 2.3 Burundi: Proper care saves lives

Figure 2.3 Burundi: Proper care saves lives

Photo: Ken Opprann

2.4.3 Strong links between education, health and nutrition

Education leads to better general health and nutrition. Moreover, education is important for reproductive health, reducing adolescent pregnancies and achieving sustainable population growth. Schools can be an arena for promoting improved nutrition, protection against disease, and improved hygiene, and for combating female genital mutilation and HIV/AIDS. Higher education is an important factor for ensuring good services in the health sector.

Food security, nutrition and learning

The foundation for a child’s ability to learn is laid before the child starts school. Studies show that the quality of nutrition during the first one thousand days of a child’s life, from conception until the child turns two, is crucial to the child’s physical and cognitive development. Food security, nutrition and the ability to learn are interrelated. In some cases, poor food security and nutrition may be due to insufficient knowledge of production methods and of nutrition. Thus education also has the potential to reduce malnutrition, undernourishment and hunger. If all women completed primary school, 1.7 million children could be saved from malnutrition and stunted growth, and 15 % fewer children under the age of five would die, every year. If all women completed lower secondary school as well, as many as 12 million children could be saved from malnutrition and stunted growth, and deaths among the under-fives would be halved, every year. A total of 2.8 million lives could be saved each year if all the women in the world completed upper secondary education.16

In addition, the level of a mother’s education affects her children’s development and learning, as language and social skills depend on stimulation.

Further, schools can be an arena for enhancing food security for pupils and the local community.

Health

Education yields significant health gains. Proper care at birth not only saves the lives of mothers and children; it also reduces society’s economic and social costs related to treatment, disability and loss of income. At the same time, good health promotes better learning.

People who are educated generally know more about health and are better able to reduce the risk of getting various diseases. The level of health among children and young people improves if their parents have an education. The absence of epidemics and protection against disease are global public goods, and knowledge is vital for achieving this. Greater access to higher education will lead to more knowledge and new technology that can be used by decision makers and service providers to meet global challenges.

Child marriage, poverty, and insufficient access to general education, contraception and sex education are among the underlying causes of adolescent pregnancies. Around 30 % of teenage mothers in developing countries are under the age of 15. Every year, 70 000 teenage girls die due to complications related to pregnancy and childbirth. When those who have children are children themselves, the consequences for the local community and for the country’s economy as a whole are serious. Despite the importance of preventing adolescent pregnancies, less than 2 % of global funding for development is devoted to teenage girls. This is particularly problematic at a time when the number of young people has never been greater.17

Educating girls is one of the most effective strategies for combating child marriage and early pregnancy. Every day, an estimated 40 000 girls under the age of 18 are married off. If all girls completed lower and upper secondary school, the number of child brides would be reduced by two thirds.18 At the same time, we know that early marriage and pregnancy prevent many girls from continuing their education. Studies show that if all the girls in sub-Saharan Africa and in West and South Asia completed lower secondary school, 60 % fewer girls under the age of 17 would suffer the social and physical consequences of pregnancy at a young age. In some instances, these complications are extremely serious or fatal.19

Female genital mutilation is a traditional practice rooted in local norms and values. Experience shows that this practice ends when those brought up in this tradition collectively agree to change the social norms. Long-term local efforts, with the support of national bans, information campaigns, and education, have reduced the prevalence of female genital mutilation in many countries. According to UNICEF, two to three million girls are still genitally mutilated every year. This is the case even though the majority of the women and girls where female genital mutilation is practised would like to see it eliminated.

In efforts to prevent female genital mutilation, a broader approach that includes informal instruction in literacy and numeracy skills or other measures that are relevant in the local context has proved effective. Teachers often play an important role as change agents in their communities through instruction in the schools and adult education programmes. Experience shows that girls who complete school are considerably less at risk of being genitally mutilated than those who do not.

Textbox 2.4 Using schools to combat female genital mutilation: the project of Save the Children in Ethiopia

Schools and teachers play a key role in combating female genital mutilation. Special courses are therefore held to increase the involvement and commitment of teachers. So far, 24 primary schools in the Afar region of Ethiopia have integrated various educational activities related to work against female genital mutilation in their curriculum.

Pupil-led clubs have also been established in schools to increase pupils’ awareness of the effects of female genital mutilation, and to enable them to influence their parents and the local community. Teachers organise and supervise the work that is done in these clubs. The school-based activities to eliminate female genital mutilation are coordinated with work being carried out in the local communities. Teachers and school administrators are included in the village committees. In this way, knowledge is passed on and these efforts can be more closely coordinated.

2.4.4 Education is the backbone of a democratic nation

World Economic Forum 2014 pointed out that the growing inequality between rich and poor within and between countries currently represents the greatest global security risk.20 If the world does not manage to reverse this trend, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to ensure that everyone’s basic human rights are met.

Historically, education is the key to nation building, and knowledge is an essential tool for combating terrorism and religious and political fanaticism. Countries that set their sights on democracy, peace and tolerance can realise these values by giving priority to education for all, with a focus on good quality and non-discrimination. Hate and extremism cannot be combated by education alone, but it is difficult to envision how they can be eliminated without education. The backdrop to violence and recruitment to armed groups is often unemployment and a lack of access to education. This can be seen both in urban slum areas and in countries already experiencing conflict or at risk of conflict.

The likelihood of a person voting in an election is one and a half times greater if that person has completed primary education, and three times greater if he or she has completed at least lower secondary education, than for a person with no education.21 In Africa, only 7 % of the relevant age group is in higher education today, while the world average is 30 %.22 As we know that the potential for growth and democracy increases in line with the level of education, this is a challenge for the development of democracy on the continent.

Education also advances gender equality by raising awareness of gender issues among pupils and in the local community as a whole. The education of boys is crucial in this context. Recent studies show that boys who attend school and learn to respect girls’ rights play an even more decisive role for gender equality in their community than girls do. Boys’ and men’s ability to transform gender roles should be used more actively in the schools.

Footnotes

1.

See, for instance, Romer, Lucas and Barro.

2.

Global Monitoring Report (GMR), 2013/4.

3.

‘General Education, Vocational Education, and Labor-Market Outcomes over the Life-Cycle,’ Hanushek, EA et al., Institute for the Study of Labor, 2 Discussion Paper No. 6083, Bonn, Germany, October 2011.

4.

Education at OECD. Core Findings and Policy Directions, OECD, 2009.

5.

Article 13.

6.

See Table 1.1 and footnote 7.

7.

GMR 2013/4.

8.

EFA GMR 2012, Norad’s results report 2013.

9.

EFA GMR, 2013/4 Gender Summary, and Girls’ Education – the facts, UNESCO/GMR.

10.

Brookings.

11.

GMR, 2013/4.

12.

GMR 2013/14, table, p. 76.

13.

ILO 2014.

14.

Education First, an initiative of the United Nations Secretary-General (2012).

15.

Majgaard and Mingat, 2012.

16.

UNESCO 2013.

17.

The 2013 State of World Population report of the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) is called ‘Motherhood in Childhood – facing the challenge of adolescent pregnancy’.

18.

Chapter 6, Giving Girls a Chance: An Agenda for Action, in the UNFPA report on child marriage, pp 51–52.

19.

Girls’ education – the facts, UNESCO website, October 2013.

20.

World Bank.

21.

GMR 2013/4.

22.

World Bank blog, ‘Working to Meet Africa’s Skyrocketing Demand for Higher Education’, Ritva Reinikka, 4 June 2013.

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