2 Norway’s history and experience

Representatives of other countries will often be aware that Norway previously had an official religion and state church. They may use their knowledge of the former state church system to counter our arguments on the need to promote freedom of religion or belief and a diverse, liberal society. It will therefore be useful in such cases to have some background knowledge about the history of Norwegian religious policy and the transition from religious hegemony to a society that is open to a diversity of religions and beliefs.

History of religious policy in Norway

The Lutheran Reformation in Norway was introduced by Royal Decree in 1537. The king became the head of the church, and the religion of the king was to be the religion of the people. Those who continued to follow Catholic practices were subject to reprisals. In 1569, the king issued a set of articles that foreigners had to accept to enter the realm ( Fremmedartiklene ), and immigrants to Norway were required under this to profess the Evangelical-Lutheran religion. Foreigners belonging to other faiths could be granted temporary residence in Norway if they had skills the country needed, but they were banned from proselytising.

The Norwegian Constitution of 1814 continued the religious monopoly of the absolute monarchy, establishing it as a constitutional duty to baptise and raise children in the Church of Norway, and making it mandatory for the monarch to belong to the Church and protect it. The Norwegian Constitution excluded Jews and Catholic monastic orders from entry to the realm. The Quaker movement was introduced to Norway in 1814 by returning Norwegian prisoners of war who had converted during their captivity in England. The Quakers challenged the religious monopoly by refusing to pay the church tax or serve in the military, by not baptising their children and by getting married without a priest present. They were not permitted to bury their dead in consecrated ground, were fined and their property was confiscated. Some members of the Quaker community emigrated to North America as religious refugees in 1825. The lay preacher Hans Nielsen Hauge (1771–1824) founded a widespread religious movement and revival that questioned the role of priests as officials and the Church of Norway in general. Despite this, however, Hauge remained a member of the state church throughout his life. The Quaker and layman movements triggered a political debate that paved the way for repealing the Conventicle Act ( Konventikkelplakaten ), a decree issued in 1741 that had given Lutheran priests a monopoly on conducting all religious meetings.

The enactment of the first Dissenter Act in 1845 was a pivotal event during this period. Various subsequent legislative reforms gradually moved Norway away from a policy of religious discrimination and towards greater acceptance of diversity. The Dissenter Act (1845) made it possible for other Christian denominations to establish their religious communities in Norway and gave Norwegian citizens the right to resign membership of the Church of Norway. Nevertheless, Christian Dissenters and others who were not members of the state church were still excluded from participating in several areas in society. These restrictions were gradually lifted in the late 1800s and onwards into the 1900s. Religious freedom was ultimately enshrined in the Norwegian Constitution in 1964.

Articles relating to the state church in the Norwegian Constitution were repealed on 22 May 2012, and a new Article 16 was introduced on freedom of religion and the state’s relationship with the Church of Norway and other religious and belief communities. Article 16 reads, ‘All inhabitants of the realm shall have the right to free exercise of their religion. The Church of Norway, an Evangelical-Lutheran church, will remain the Established Church of Norway and will as such be supported by the State. Detailed provisions as to its system will be laid down by law. All religious and belief communities should be supported on equal terms.’

In 2013, a special commission appointed by the Government submitted an official report with a number of policy recommendations on freedom of religion or belief for an open and diverse society. On 1 January 2017, the Church of Norway became an independent legal entity, and a new act consolidating the existing legislation for religious and belief communities ( trossamfunnsloven ) entered into force on 1 January 2021. The new act, which applies to all religious and belief communities, contains a separate chapter for the Church of Norway. This chapter sets out the general obligations and principles that apply to the church. For religious and belief communities outside the Church of Norway, the new act provides clarification regarding the grounds for refusal of grants and sets out reporting requirements related to gender equality, prohibited grounds for discrimination, and activities targeting children and youth. Public funding may also be denied if communities receive financial support from countries that do not respect the right to freedom of religion or belief. These issues are assessed by the Office of the County Governor based on a detailed set of criteria. The Church of Norway may still apply for and receive allocations under government and municipal budgets, while religious and belief communities outside the Church of Norway are only eligible for government grants. The act extends the provisions stipulating that the religious age of majority for children is 15 years of age. This has remained unchanged since the Dissenter Act was amended in 1891.

Challenges and opportunities in a society open to a diversity of religions and beliefs

The growing diversity of religions and beliefs in Norway has generated tensions, but also more dialogue, and given rise to new forms of cooperation that entail both legal and practical challenges and opportunities.

Working for change from within. Individuals and groups within the church have worked to promote the equality and rights of women and LGBT+ people in the Church of Norway. The Norwegian YWCA and the Norwegian Association of Women Theologians (NKTF) played a key role in achieving women’s equality and their right to vote within the church, but also in the political arena and in society at large. In 1961, Ingrid Bjerkås was ordained as Norway’s first female priest, and in 1993, Rosemarie Köhn became the first female bishop in the Nordic region. In 1976, lesbian and gay Christians formed the Open People’s Church group ( Åpen Kirkegruppe ), which became a driving force for the changes that took place in the Church of Norway relating to LGBT+ people until 2014, when the Open People’s Church group was established as a political organisation within the Church’s democratic structure. The possibility of church weddings for same-sex couples was the main issue on their agenda.

Christianity, Religion and Ethics Education (CREE). The former public school subjects Christianity , and the corresponding alternative Philosophy of life , were replaced in 1997 by a new mandatory subject on the school curriculum called Christianity, Religion and Philosophies of life (KRL). The new subject was intended to bring together pupils from all religious and belief communities to convey knowledge and create a foundation for dialogue and tolerance. However, inconsistencies regarding how to practice the limited right of exemption led to a legal case that made its way through the Norwegian court system, ending in the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). In its judgment on the case in 2007, the ECHR held that there had been a violation of human rights. The UN Human Rights Committee had come to the same conclusion in 2004. The public-school system’s Christian object clause in effect at that time, the limited right to exemptions and considerations regarding the rights of parents, were all crucial factors in the court’s decision. The case led to changes in the public curriculum, and the subject is now known as Knowledge of Christianity, Religion, Philosophies of life and Ethics (KRLE).

Calls to prayer from mosques. In 2000, the Legislation Department of the Ministry of Justice found that a political proposal to ban calls to prayer from mosques was in violation of the right to practise religion. Most Norwegian mosques do not broadcast calls to prayer, and if they do, the calls must comply with the regulations related to noise pollution.

Passport photos and religious garments: Norway and France were the only European countries to stipulate that people’s ears must be visible in photos in passports and on national identity cards. This posed a special challenge to Sikhs, who were not permitted to renew their passports unless they took off their turbans to be photographed. Some Muslim women were also affected by the requirement. The regulations relating to passports were amended in 2020.

Clothing that covers the face and the hijab: In 2018, the Storting (Norwegian parliament) passed a law banning the use of clothing that covers the face in day-care centres, schools, institutions of higher education, and in obligatory classes for newly arrived immigrants. The ban is not general and only applies in the educational setting. Discussions on the use of hijabs have been a part of the public debate. There has also been a debate on changing the police uniform regulations for allowing women to wear a specially designed hijab, based on an English model. The debate concluded with a set of rules confirming that it is still a primary aim for the police to be presented as neutral, without the wearing of clothing or symbols associated with a religion or belief.

Residence permits for religious leaders: Religious leaders from abroad seeking to work in Norway were required to have completed education at master’s degree level and/or have a salary level corresponding to the salary for people with equivalent qualifications in Norway. Meanwhile Buddhists, Hindus and some African church communities operate with a tradition-based education that is often of a more practical nature, targeted towards ceremonial purposes or involving a less comprehensive theoretical form of training similar to that of layman movements in Norway. Some leaders are supported entirely by their congregations without receiving a regular salary, while for others, it is customary to have a salary level far lower than what the regulations stipulated. The regulations have now been amended so that it is possible to apply for a dispensation.

Spiritual service in public institutions etc.: Public hospitals and institutions involved in elderly care, alongside the Norwegian Correctional Services and the Norwegian Armed Forces have traditionally employed chaplains from the Church of Norway. But there is also a long-standing cooperation between the health authorities and other religious and belief communities to develop services that target the needs of people belonging to different religions or belief groups. Several trials have been carried out at the larger hospitals. The Norwegian Correctional Services have organised a system for cooperating with religious leaders outside the Church of Norway. The Norwegian Armed Forces have established a corps of advisers from different religious and belief communities. In addition, the former practice of Christian prayers in the field has been replaced with a more general ethics appeal. Individual care plans for people who are dependent on municipal health and care services must accommodate the right of service users to the framework and assistance needed to exercise their religion or beliefs. This includes an obligation on the part of support persons to accompany service users to religious gatherings.

The rights of national minorities: Respecting the rights of national minorities often entails a significant focus on their religion and religious practices. Norway is under obligation to comply with the Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities from 1999. A national Action Plan in this area has been drawn up and is the purview of the Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development. Starting in the mid-1800s, the Norwegian authorities pursued a Norwegianization and assimilation policy vis-á-vis the Sámi people and other minority populations. In recent years, there has been agreement on measures to remedy the injustices this policy represented. An amendment was made to the Norwegian Constitution in 1988 and at the opening of the Sámediggi (Sami parliament) in 1997, His Majesty King Harald issued an apology. A truth and reconciliation commission, the Commission to Investigate the Norwegianization Policy and Injustice against the Sámi and Kvens/Norwegian Finns, is to present its report in 2023. At the commemoration of the International Holocaust Remembrance Day in 2012, then Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg apologised on behalf of the Norwegian Government for the injustices carried out against Norwegian Jews during the Holocaust. In 2015, based on the results of the Tater/Romani Committee’s Report Assimilation and Resistance: Norwegian policies towards Tater/Romani people from 1850 to the present , the Norwegian Government apologised for the suffering inflicted on these groups and individuals.

LGBTIQ+ people’s rights: The Norwegian Government’s Action Plan on Gender and Sexual Diversity (2023–2026) specifically aims to increase tolerance towards gender and sexual diversity in minority groups and religious communities. Many LGBT+ people in Norway are also members of religious or belief groups, and some experience challenges related to their group’s view on gender and sexuality. Research shows that belonging to several minority groups can pose particular challenges and cause individuals to suffer from intersectional or multiple discrimination.

What is the role of the Foreign Service?

• Be familiar with the evolution of a democratic Norwegian society that is open to a diversity of religions and beliefs and use this knowledge in dialogue with other countries and organisations.
• Be able to refer to Norway’s experience in the transition from a state church system to the present-day pluralistic and inclusive society, open to a diversity of religions and beliefs, in discussions with representatives of other countries.
• Be aware of Norway’s own challenges in relations between mainstream Norwegian society and ethnic and religious minorities and be able to point to measures taken in recent years that have been effective in improving inclusion.
• Be familiar with the Norwegian Government’s Action Plan against Racism and Discrimination on the Grounds of Ethnicity and Religion, as well as the Action Plan Against Anti-Semitism – a Continuation, the Action Plan to Combat Discrimination and Hatred Towards Muslims, and the Action Plan on Gender and Sexual Diversity.
• Be familiar with the extent to which the country you serve in respects and protects the right to freedom of religion or belief.