2 Strengthen the public’s critical media literacy

2.1 Introduction

Today’s information society presents new challenges for media users. Identifying untrustworthy sources and information has become more difficult, and the risk of being exposed to disinformation is increasing. Over the past year alone, the rapid development of generative AI has created entirely new challenges.

Open and enlightened public discourse is a prerequisite for a well-functioning democracy. For meaningful societal debate to take place, people need to be able to access and use independent and reliable sources of information.

To navigate the vast flow of information and determine what is trustworthy, people need to critically assess content and be conscious of the sources they choose. This requires critical media literacy.

This chapter describes the challenges and presents the policy instruments and measures the Norwegian Government considers necessary to strengthen critical media literacy among the population in the face of an increasingly complex media landscape.

2.2 Challenges

2.2.1 Information overload and technological advances

The democratisation of information and freedom of expression via the Internet and social media is unprecedented.12 The digital society is increasingly marked by information overload, where the challenge lies not in accessing information but in understanding and navigating it.

Information that previously reached the public via news media and government authorities is now increasingly published in global media platforms, where both the sources and the mechanisms of dissemination may be unknown. Consequently, it is now harder to distinguish between accurate and false information, which can lead to uncertainty and a sense of powerlessness among the public. It has also contributed to a general mistrust in which both credible and dubious sources are viewed with the same scepticism.13

Maintaining a critical approach to the constant stream of digital information can be a challenge. Even those who believe they can detect fake content online14 can be influenced by the overall impression of an issue or debate. For instance, exposure to a disproportionate number of posts or comments from one side of an argument can create a misleading sense of public opinion. AI-generated images or videos can also evoke emotional responses, even when recipients know the content is not real.

Social media and search engines are typically used to find relevant information online. While useful, these platforms are not neutral. They are structured in a way that can amplify and filter content, potentially influencing the formation of opinions. Recommendation algorithms on social media determine the content that users see, which in turn shapes the basis for each individual’s freedom to form opinions. Consequently, social media platforms have considerable power to influence users.

2.2.2 Social media as a news source

More than one in four Norwegians report that social media is among their main sources of news.15 Children and young people receive news through social media to a greater extent than adults.16

Social media can increase exposure to news that people might not otherwise encounter, a development that is generally positive. However, using social media as a news source also presents certain challenges.

In editorial media, an editor is responsible for all published content, and the work is carried out in accordance with a common set of ethical guidelines and journalistic standards, making it a credible source of news and information.

In contrast, social media allows users to post content in real time, without any editorial oversight. These platforms are designed so that users can easily share information, but this also allows misinformation and disinformation to spread rapidly. A survey by the Norwegian Media Authority (NMA) on critical media literacy in Norway shows that the public considers editorial media a more credible source of information than social media, though this varies across demographic groups.17

Overall, individuals with a higher education and those who use editorial media tend to place greater trust in these sources. Younger age groups are more likely than older groups to trust social media content.

Recommendation algorithms can lead to users being exposed predominantly to content from a particular perspective, increasing the risk of missing alternative viewpoints or nuances on an issue. The algorithms also favour content that elicits strong reactions, making polarising material more visible. It can also be difficult to distinguish between content from credible sources and unreliable sources when all information is presented in the same feed. In recent years, platforms have also deprioritised news and political content,18 which can lead to more random exposure to news. Research further suggests that using social media for news can weaken the process of acquiring knowledge about politics and current events.19 Accordingly, the reliance on social media as a replacement for editorial media as a news source is a challenge.

2.2.3 Vulnerable groups in society

Certain groups in society are more susceptible to prejudice than others. Hate speech and abusive content, particularly when disseminated online and via social media, can include disinformation or be used in influence operations intended to create unrest and division.

The Norwegian Government has presented several action plans containing measures to prevent hate speech and harassment. These include the overarching Action Plan on Racism and Discrimination 2024–2027, the Action Plan against Antisemitism 2025–2030, the Action Plan to Combat Anti-Muslim Racism 2025–2030, the Action Plan to Combat Harassment and Discrimination of the Sámi 2025–2030, and the Action Plan on Gender and Sexual Diversity 2023–2026.

2.2.4 Differences in digital literacy across age groups and genders

In 2024, the NMA conducted its third survey of critical media literacy in the Norwegian population.20 In 2024, the NMA conducted its third survey of critical media literacy in the Norwegian population. The survey highlights a correlation between age, digital literacy and critical media literacy. Older adults reported greater difficulty than younger people in, for example, checking the source of a website, assessing whether content is sponsored, notifying the publisher about content that may violate guidelines, and reporting illegal content to the relevant authorities.

Older adults also found it difficult to distinguish between different types of sources and content on social media, and faced more challenges in identifying AI-generated content. Developing these skills is essential for maintaining a critical approach to digital content in order to make sound judgements and informed choices.

Young people aged 16 to 24 score highly on digital user competence. However, several factors make them vulnerable. They tend to be more positive than older age groups about social media and its role in society. For example, they are more likely to believe that social media offers insight that helps them stay informed about current events. This can be problematic, as social media does not quality assure content to the same extent as editor-controlled journalistic media.

Younger people are also less concerned than older age groups that AI services make it harder to distinguish fact from fiction, or that the spread of false information can undermine trust in public authorities. They report that it is relatively easy to judge whether information they encounter online is true or false. Given their reliance on social media for news and information, it is crucial that young people maintain a sufficiently critical approach to the content they encounter. A lack of critical engagement, combined with confidence in their own abilities, can make them particularly vulnerable.

Gender is another important factor. More men than women express confidence in their own judgements about whether online information is true or false. When combined with age, this may suggest that young men are more vulnerable to disinformation than women in the same age group. Further research is needed, however, before firm conclusions can be drawn.

2.2.5 Varying trust in public institutions

News consumption among the Norwegian population is generally characterised by consistently high trust in editorial media, but this trust is not evenly distributed. Younger people tend to have less trust in the news than older age groups, while individuals with a higher education tend to have greater trust than others.21

A small proportion of the population has very low trust in the media and other societal institutions and does not feel represented in the reality presented by the editorial media. This is particularly evident on contentious issues such as the climate, religion and immigration, where one in four Norwegians question whether information from public authorities and editorial media is reliable.22 Some feel that editorial media have moved away from their societal role as a public watchdog, actively contribute to maintaining dominant power structures, and fail to reflect the everyday lives and challenges of ordinary people.

These more marginalised groups seek information from alternative sources. They access news and information from websites that do not adhere to journalistic standards, online forums, social media, or chat services. While they are interested in political and societal issues, the information they encounter is not necessarily based on fact. They tend to dismiss corrective information when it does not align with their own political views.23

This dissatisfaction and sense of exclusion are often linked to perceptions of an unfair societal hierarchy, in which they see themselves as an ‘inferior part’ in social, economic and political contexts.24 Disinformation campaigns can exploit these political divisions and have a particular impact on extremist groups and those sceptical of authorities. This makes these groups more vulnerable than the general population, including to Russian influence operations.25

An increasing proportion of those radicalised into various forms of extremism,26 are minors; a development partly associated with the use of digital platforms. Many of these radicalised minors face challenges that increase their vulnerability, such as social exclusion and mental health issues, making them more receptive to extremist messaging.27

2.3 Policy instruments

2.3.1 Democratic preparedness in schools

The promotion of critical thinking and democratic values in schools is a key policy instrument for ensuring that Norway’s younger generation is resilient to disinformation.

One of the strengths of Norwegian society is that pupils in the public education system meet peers from diverse backgrounds and learn and develop together. A positive and inclusive school environment is vital for preventing and addressing social exclusion. Pupils encounter a diverse range of peers with different experiences and perspectives, and learn through debate and the exchange of opinions. This diversity is a fundamental part of Norway’s core values, and engaging with and accepting differences is essential for building trust and safeguarding democracy. These are important qualities of the Norwegian public education system that must be preserved and further developed.

In line with the general part of the National Curriculum for Knowledge Promotion in Primary and Secondary Education and Training, which details the values and principles of primary and secondary education, education shall promote support for democratic values and democracy as a form of government. It should help pupils develop an understanding of the rules of democracy and the importance of upholding them. Democratic values should be promoted via active participation throughout a pupil’s education, helping them understand why democracy cannot be taken for granted and that it must be developed and upheld. Schools should also encourage pupils to be curious and ask questions, to engage in scientific and critical thinking, and to act with ethical awareness. The values and principles outlined in the general part of the National Curriculum form the basis for the syllabuses in the different subjects.

Critical thinking has been given more emphasis in all school syllabuses and is included in the competence framework underpinning the National Curriculum.28 This means that pupils are expected to develop the ability to think critically in all subjects, evaluate different sources of information and reflect critically on how knowledge is produced.

The syllabus in each subject is designed to develop critical thinking in different ways and includes numerous competence objectives relating to critical thinking and source evaluation. For example, in Norwegian language lessons, pupils should be able to ‘reflect critically on the influence and credibility of texts’,29 while in science they should ‘learn how to distinguish between knowledge based on science and other knowledge’.30

According to the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS),31 86 per cent of Year 9 pupils in Norway reported that they had learned at school, to a large or moderate extent, how to evaluate the trustworthiness of information found online. This figure is considerably higher than the international average of 63 per cent.

However, it can be challenging for teachers to stay abreast of rapid developments, particularly in relation to generative AI. To help teachers and others stay up to date in the increasingly fragmented information landscape, and to strengthen pupils’ source awareness and critical use of media, the Norwegian Government allocates funding to Tenk, the educational division of the fact-checking organisation Faktisk.no. Tenk develops teaching resources for schools, parents and other professionals working with children. These resources are free, publicly accessible and regularly updated. Faktisk.no receives funding for Tenk through a government grant for organisations whose activities target primary and secondary schools.

2.3.2 Reading, literature and libraries

Reading provides the foundation for the acquisition of knowledge, self-expression, civic participation and critical thinking. Libraries encourage reading engagement, independent thinking and critical analysis of information, helping the population become better informed and more discerning. Many libraries offer training in basic skills and tools for evaluating information critically and effectively.

The Norwegian Government has presented the reading engagement strategy32 and the library strategy,33 which include measures to promote reading and support libraries in their role as independent community hubs.

2.3.3 Documentation and archives in public administration

The national archives are part of the infrastructure that underpins Norway as a constitutional state and a democracy. They are unique sources of knowledge about our present and past and serve as an important source for research and historical analysis. Properly preserved and accessible archives help to build our understanding of society, facilitate open and enlightened public discourse, and protect the rights of citizens. Readily accessible archives help illuminate the foundations and processes of governmental decision-making, and enable sources used in research to be checked and claims made in the public domain to be verified or challenged. National archives help to protect society from abuses of power and historical revisionism.

The Norwegian Government is facilitating the modernisation of records management through the proposed new Archives Act, as well as through secure long-term preservation of archives and digital access via the national Digital Archives service.

2.3.4 Art, culture and cultural heritage

A well-functioning, healthy society provides the foundation for art, culture and cultural heritage as spaces for free expression, debate and the accumulation of knowledge. Cultural heritage can be a target, a tool and a source of societal resilience, and experience shows that it is used actively in disinformation, fake news and conspiracy theories. Participating in cultural activities is valuable for all citizens, as it exposes them to a diversity of opinions and forms of expression, while also increasing understanding of a society’s identity. Through such participation, art, culture and cultural heritage help to promote tolerance and understanding, while also fostering reflection on, and insight into, values, identity and society. Engagement with art and cultural activities helps build democratic resilience, enriches people’s lives and contributes to the meaningful development of society.

The infrastructure for the production and dissemination of art and culture, and for the preservation of cultural heritage, is underpinned by the Norwegian Government through institutions and public funding schemes.

2.3.5 Third sector

Participation in voluntary organisations helps individuals develop social skills, friendships and networks, and gives them a sense of achievement. These organisations provide informal spaces where children and adults can exercise their freedom of expression and encounter recognition, acceptance and the necessary challenge to their views. They therefore play a key role in gaining support for core values such as democracy and open debate.

Children’s and youth organisations are often participants’ first experience of a democratic body, where they practise collective decision-making, voting on issues and advocating for their own ideas. Their proposals may not always succeed, but they gain insight into how democratic systems ensure that all voices are heard before decisions are made. These organisations therefore function as arenas for learning democratic principles.

Many voluntary organisations also strengthen critical media literacy through knowledge production and dissemination, training and other skills-building activities.

The Norwegian Government lays the foundation for a free, independent third sector with predictable framework conditions. Simplification, coordination and digitalisation are also key priorities in its third sector policies.

2.3.6 Ung.no and DigiUng collaboration

Children, young people and parents must have access to reliable and relevant information from public authorities. In 2022, ung.no was designated the Norwegian Government’s primary channel for digital information and services for young people, as well as for youth engagement, across all levels of public service.

By providing relevant and reliable information, ung.no serves as a platform for children and young people to learn critical media literacy and how to verify information they encounter, for example, on social media.

The Government aims to further develop ung.no and the DigiUng collaboration.

2.3.7 Safe digitalisation in society

In order to safeguard trust in our democracy, digitalisation in Norway must take place within a safe framework. Digital literacy and critical media literacy are closely linked.

The Norwegian Government’s digitalisation strategy, The Digital Norway of the Future,34 aims to maintain a strong and inclusive democracy in which people have high levels of trust in one another, in public authorities and in democratic institutions. The strategy includes measures to strengthen efforts to increase digital literacy in groups facing digital barriers or exclusion.

Through the action plan for increased inclusion in a digital society,35 the Government aims to ensure that all citizens have equal access to public services, regardless of background, language skills, or age.

2.3.8 NMA’s efforts to strengthen the public’s critical media literacy

The work of the NMA includes helping to strengthen critical media literacy among the population, particularly within vulnerable groups. This work includes research and analysis, as well as guidance and information initiatives targeted at different audiences.

Research and analysis

The NMA regularly conducts quantitative and qualitative studies on media use, media habits, trust in different media and critical media literacy, including the Media Diversity Accounts and the surveys ‘Children and Media’ and ‘Parents and Media’. It also monitors critical media literacy across the population and collaborates with other Nordic media authorities.

Guidance and information

Findings from the NMA’s research are disseminated in various channels and are used to inform guidance materials and public campaigns. The NMA works with other public bodies through DigiUng and ung.no to respond to questions from young people and to produce evidence-based articles for this audience. It also provides content for foreldrehverdag.no.

Children and young people are particularly vulnerable to harmful content and designs on digital platforms. The NMA serves as Norway’s Safer Internet Centre and works with the Red Cross to improve online safety for this population group.

Coordination in critical media literacy efforts

The Norwegian Ministry of Children and Families coordinates initiatives promoting a safe digital childhood, while the NMA is responsible for coordination at the agency level. The Action Plan for a Safe Digital Childhood serves as a key framework for this work. The NMA chairs a collaborative body to coordinate the Government’s efforts in this area and also operates a national network for critical media literacy.

2.3.9 International efforts

Norway contributes to social and economic cohesion in the European Economic Area (EEA) through the EEA and Norway Grants, which are allocated to 15 EU countries in Southern and Eastern Europe under negotiated agreements. Norway has funded projects to strengthen critical media literacy, freedom of expression, investigative journalism and independent media.

The Norwegian Government will continue its efforts to ensure broader access to communication technology and digital public goods. Digital divides remain a major global challenge. People require access to the Internet, digital platforms and social media to obtain information and participate fully in society. Nevertheless, one-third of the world’s population does not use the Internet. In developed countries, approximately 93 per cent of the population are Internet users, compared with just 27 per cent in developing countries. Lack of access to the Internet and digital services reinforces social and economic inequalities and increases vulnerability to disinformation by limiting opportunities to evaluate different sources.

The Government also seeks to strengthen digital skills and critical media literacy through its development cooperation programmes on education, equality and digitalisation.

2.4 Measures

2.4.1 Potential funding for a new centre for source awareness

Faktisk.no has proposed establishing an independent education and training centre to improve the population’s source awareness. The centre would primarily build on the existing Tenk initiative and extend its reach to additional target groups. Funding for Tenk is already provided through the government grant for organisations with activities targeting primary and secondary schools,36 and the new centre would operate as an independent foundation, rather than as part of Faktisk.no.

The Norwegian Government welcomes this initiative and will consider financially supporting the establishment of a centre for source awareness, which could enhance critical media literacy, particularly among young people, older adults and other potentially vulnerable groups.

2.4.2 Strengthen the role of libraries

In recent years, increasing focus has been placed on threats to democracy, such as political polarisation, digital exclusion and disinformation. Libraries are intended to serve as a counterweight to these developments. As centres for knowledge and public education, libraries must provide access to research and sources, facilitate debate and help to develop critical thinking and digital literacy among the population. Libraries constitute an important arena for strengthening critical media literacy, and this role should be reinforced and given greater prominence.

The National Library of Norway supports library development by managing and allocating project and development funding to libraries. Political directives in the library sector are set out in the extended library strategy,37 in effect until 2025.

The National Library follows up the strategy in partnership with the library sector, and this joint effort will continue after the current strategy concludes.

The Norwegian Government will strengthen libraries’ work in promoting reading and reading engagement, as well as their expertise in digital inclusion.

2.4.3 Prevent digital exclusion through an inclusive, safe and accessible gaming culture

Video gaming is Norway’s most popular leisure activity, and the Norwegian Government seeks to promote an inclusive, safe and accessible gaming culture.38 Beyond the games themselves, gaming can include gaming platforms, chats and servers where political topics are also discussed. Players can be exposed to extremist propaganda, radicalisation and disinformation.39 To counter disinformation, video games should, in some cases, be regarded as a media platform on a par with social media, making them subject to the new regulations outlined in Chapter 3: Hold social media to account.

The Government’s work to promote an inclusive and safe gaming culture can help prevent vulnerability to disinformation. Parental involvement, along with enhancing adults’ understanding of gaming environments and the children and youth sector, can help prevent digital exclusion and build resilience to disinformation.

2.4.4 Further develop ung.no and provide current information on source evaluation and disinformation

Ung.no is the Norwegian Government’s primary channel for disseminating digital information to young people. The website can be used to fact-check information and to learn. A large proportion of children and youth access ung.no regularly.

It is important that ung.no provides sufficient information on topics such as disinformation, source evaluation and related issues. In collaboration with other relevant agencies, the NMA will ensure that information on these topics is continuously updated and further developed.

2.4.5 Prevent radicalisation

Radicalised groups are particularly vulnerable to influence attempts.40 The Norwegian Government undertakes to prevent all forms of radicalisation and extremism and will present a White Paper to the Norwegian Parliament (Storting) in spring 2025 on the prevention of extremism. Preventing social exclusion is an integral part of efforts to prevent radicalisation, and the White Paper includes a range of measures aimed at achieving this.

2.4.6 Strengthen the NMA’s work on critical media literacy

The Norwegian Government is continuing and strengthening the NMA’s work on insights and initiatives to improve the public’s critical media literacy. See Chapter 6, which outlines the expanded mandate for the NMA, and Chapter 5, which addresses the need for more knowledge.

The NMA will continue to serve as a key supplier of knowledge for both the public and government authorities, offering information and guidance to different groups. In this work, greater emphasis will be placed on digital source evaluation and raising awareness of how AI and language models work.

2.4.7 Guidance on users’ rights on social media

New regulations strengthen Norwegian users’ rights on foreign-based platforms (see Chapter 3: Hold social media to account). Users can now, for example, notify platforms about content that breaches platform rules and appeal decisions to remove a post or account. These rights apply to individuals and businesses.

As Norway’s Safer Internet Centre, the NMA is responsible for informing children and young people about their rights online. To ensure the new rules have the intended effect, all social media users in Norway must be made aware of them.

The Norwegian Government will task the NMA with producing guidance for Norwegian users on their rights. The Norwegian Data Protection Authority will be consulted on matters relating to privacy rights.

2.4.8 Strengthen the Nordic cooperation

The Nordic countries share multiple common challenges in building resilience to influence operations and disinformation. Our populations and institutions have similarities, and the same applies to our security.

The Nordic media authorities are conducting a joint survey of critical media literacy in the population, supported by the Nordic Council of Ministers, to enable cross-country comparisons of the status and development of critical media literacy and provide an evidence base for considering potential measures.

The Norwegian Government will actively promote collaboration on these issues through the Nordic Council of Ministers and the follow-up of recommendations from the Nordic Think Tank for Tech and Democracy.41

2.4.9 Support measures to strengthen resilience to disinformation through the EEA and Norway Grants

In the upcoming period for the EEA and Norway Grants, Norway will work to ensure that measures aimed at increasing resilience to disinformation are integrated into various programmes in many of the 15 relevant EU countries. These countries could receive support through programmes in sectors such as culture, education, local community exchanges, emergency preparedness and justice, as well as through one of Europe’s largest civil society funds.

Norwegian organisations can participate in this cooperation through sharing experiences and learning at the European level. It will also be important to strengthen efforts to counter disinformation on climate and the environment, and to generate new knowledge and develop policies through research and collaboration with international organisations such as the Council of Europe and the OECD.

Through the EEA and Norway Grants, measures will be undertaken at three levels: 1) Resilience in the population will be strengthened by improving critical media literacy, partly through education and training; 2) Efforts will focus on reducing mistrust and the conditions that enable the propagation of disinformation, particularly at the local level and through the inclusion of marginalised groups; 3) The framework conditions for addressing disinformation will be improved, for example by strengthening police action against cybercrime, tackling digital violence against women, and promoting responsible use of digital technology.

The individual country agreements will be drawn up in 2025, and most programmes are expected to be operational by 2026.

The Norwegian Government will

• consider providing funding for the establishment of Tenk, a centre for source awareness
• strengthen libraries’ efforts to promote reading and reading engagement, and enhance their digital inclusion expertise
• prevent digital exclusion by fostering a more inclusive, safe and accessible gaming culture
• ensure more, regularly updated information on source evaluation and disinformation is published on ung.no
• reinforce efforts to prevent radicalisation
• strengthen the NMA’s work on critical media literacy
• produce guidance for consumers on their rights on social media
• strengthen Nordic cooperation on critical media literacy
• support measures to strengthen resilience to disinformation through the EEA and Norway Grants