5 Strengthen the knowledge base

5.1 Introduction

Paradoxically, while the accumulated body of knowledge has never been greater, access to fake news and disinformation has also increased. Distinguishing between disinformation and difference of opinion is a challenging but increasingly important exercise. Resilience to disinformation does not entail being critical of everything; it is about drawing on available knowledge, supporting claims with evidence and giving due consideration to opposing views and counterarguments.

The importance of knowledge and research in the fight against disinformation is twofold.

First, the scientific method itself acts as a vaccine against disinformation. Scientific methodology is based on continuously testing theories and hypotheses to determine whether they hold, enabling us to develop and expand our understanding of the world. Knowledge should and must be challenged; however, those who challenge it must also be able to substantiate their claims. Critical thinking, source evaluation and a fundamental understanding of scientific theory are skills everyone needs when engaging with the ever-growing flow of information from the increasing number of platforms and sources.

Second, knowledge of and research on disinformation and how it spreads are crucial for strengthening processes and institutions in the face of growing access to false information.

In a liberal democracy, there must be ample room for disagreement and debate. However, some measures to counter disinformation, such as extensive surveillance or censorship of opinion content, can risk undermining fundamental democratic principles, including freedom of expression, privacy and democratic freedom. A lack of knowledge about the propagation of disinformation can lead to countermeasures that are either excessive or ineffective.

Over the past decade, the volume of research on disinformation has steadily increased. Much of this research focuses on the democratic and security implications of changes in the digital information environment. Although the majority of disinformation research originates from, or focuses on, the United States, there is also substantial research activity in Norway and at other European universities.

An up-to-date, evidence-based knowledge base within a Norwegian context is important for identifying appropriate measures and achieving the right balance between freedom of expression, freedom of information and civil protection.

This chapter outlines the challenges and sets out the policy instruments and measures the Norwegian Government deems necessary to support further research and strengthen the knowledge base on disinformation in Norway.

5.2 Challenges

5.2.1 Rapid developments in technology and research

The rapid pace of technological change presents challenges for research on disinformation. The field is continually evolving, and the need for up-to-date knowledge is also growing at a rapid pace. AI has made it possible to generate and disseminate disinformation on a larger scale and in more sophisticated ways than before, and it can help identify and analyse the propagation of disinformation more effectively than before.

5.2.2 Fragmented research and knowledge on disinformation

Many strong research communities in Norway are examining different aspects of disinformation and other information threats. The interdisciplinary nature of this research is both a strength and a challenge. Multiple perspectives can provide broader insight and capture different aspects of change. However, studies from different disciplines often use varying terms and definitions,100 making it difficult to compare findings. Consequently, it is challenging to establish a clear overview of the available knowledge in the field, draw conclusions about the scale of the problem, identify vulnerabilities and consider how best to develop targeted and effective measures.

5.2.3 Strengthen knowledge on how disinformation spreads over time

Studies have been conducted on how disinformation spreads in Norway. The Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI), commissioned by the Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development, has analysed influence attempts in connection with recent elections in Norway. These studies, along with similar research, provide valuable insight into how disinformation spreads in the country.

However, influence operations and the spread of disinformation can occur covertly and over extended periods, making them difficult to capture in studies with a limited timeframe. Longer time series may therefore be better suited for showing developments over time.

5.2.4 Improve understanding of which measures help build resilience to disinformation

Which measures are effective in strengthening resilience to disinformation varies between countries, across different contexts, and among different segments of the population.

Research has highlighted links between critical media literacy, patterns of media use and an individual’s vulnerability to information influence. However, identifying the most effective measures requires further knowledge of what works within a Norwegian context.

5.2.5 Improve understanding of vulnerabilities in Norway

Identifying targeted and effective measures to enhance resilience to disinformation requires knowledge on how different segments of the population are exposed to and influenced by disinformation.

The chapter on critical media literacy describes various groups in society that, for different reasons, may be particularly vulnerable to disinformation. To strengthen critical media literacy across the entire population, further knowledge is needed on the factors that make these and potentially other groups vulnerable.

5.2.6 Improve understanding of the propagation and impact of disinformation in online sub-cultures and gaming environments

More knowledge is needed on how disinformation spreads online beyond the major social media platforms, particularly within online subcultures and via gaming environments.

Online communities formed around, for example, video gaming, provide a valuable escape from loneliness and isolation for many members.101 Despite these positive aspects and the wider social benefits of gaming culture, gaming platforms (like Discord, Twitch and Steam) and smaller social media platforms (such as Parler and BitChute) have also emerged as arenas for information influence and the propagation of disinformation.102

The report from the Commission for Countering Extremism highlighted how extremists have exploited the broad reach of gaming platforms and gaming culture for recruitment, propaganda dissemination, mobilisation and acts of violence.

More knowledge is needed about the phenomenon in order to explore potential measures.

5.2.7 Trust in research

Trust in research and knowledge is essential for society to make evidence-based decisions. In Norway, the population generally has a high level of trust in research and knowledge. Nevertheless, there are notable variations and exceptions. For instance, trust in research on climate change and renewable energy is consistently lower and appears to be declining, and certain population groups exhibit lower levels of trust than others.103

It is therefore important to understand how trust in research varies and changes over time, as well as the factors that influence it. These questions are the focus of a current research project at Norway’s Institute for Social Research.104

5.3 Policy instruments

5.3.1 Current research in Norway

Information influence and disinformation has been identified as a priority research area in the long-term plan for research and higher education 2023–2032.

Major universities and several research institutes already have extensive activity in this field. Research is interdisciplinary and aligned with the expertise of different academic environments.

The topics of disinformation and information influence are relevant across several portfolios in the Research Council of Norway (particularly Welfare and Education, and Democracy and Global Development), but there are no dedicated initiatives specifically targeting them. Nevertheless, the Research Council funds ongoing research projects on disinformation, with over NOK 150 million allocated to date. The majority of this funding is directed to MediaFutures, the Research Centre for Responsible Media Technology and Innovation, affiliated with the University of Bergen. Norwegian research communities also have close connections with European and international research initiatives, and extensive cross-border collaboration is underway.

5.3.2 Public-oriented research communication

Public-oriented research communication serves an important democratic function as it improves understanding of research findings and their potential practical applications. Disseminating, sharing and applying research strengthens society’s resilience to disinformation.

Communication is a core activity for higher education institutions and a key objective for publicly funded research institutes.105 However, research and education are generally valued more highly and better rewarded than public-oriented research communication. Academic staff tend to prioritise activities that carry most weight in recruitment and promotion decisions. A 2021 time-use survey found that researchers spend around 5 per cent of their working hours on research dissemination.106 Historically, recognition of public-oriented research communication has been inconsistently weighted in recruitment and promotion processes in the sector.

In 2025, the Norwegian Government removed scientific publishing as a research indicator in the funding system for higher education institutions. Consequently, published research output no longer carries weight in core funding allocations for the higher education sector.107 The publishing indicator is still used for research funding in the institute sector (independent research institutes that receive both public funding and private contracts) and health authorities.

Internationally, efforts are underway to reform the system for evaluating research, researchers and research organisations, including through the Coalition for Advancing Research Assessment (CoARA). In line with this, Universities Norway (UHR) has developed a framework for tailored academic career assessments, in which research dissemination is one of six competence areas recognised for merit. Several Norwegian institutions are currently implementing this framework.

An amendment to the regulations of the Universities and Colleges Act now allows institutions to place emphasis on a broader range of competencies in recruitment, whereby research dissemination and other public engagement activities carry more weight than previously.

5.3.3 Media research and continuing education

The Norwegian Government operates a dedicated grant scheme for media research and continuing education, aimed at enhancing understanding of the role of media in the development of society. The scheme is administered by the NMA. Funded research is intended to strengthen the knowledge base for media policy and support efforts to address major societal challenges, including resilience to disinformation. Critical media literacy is a priority area in the scheme.

5.3.4 Reports and surveys by government agencies

Several government agencies produce reports and data on the challenges related to information influence in different areas of society.

The NMA regularly monitors the public’s media use and critical media literacy and publishes biannual assessments of major online platforms’ compliance with industry standards to counter disinformation.

Annual public threat assessments by the NIS, PST and NSM provide information on the risks that disinformation and other forms of information influence may pose to Norwegian society.

5.4 Measures

5.4.1 Explore the potential for establishing a research centre for long-term research on public discourse

There is a pressing need for research on disinformation in a Norwegian context, including how it spreads, who it targets, who is vulnerable, its impact on public discourse and which countermeasures are effective. Long-term studies are needed to track developments over time, as also noted by the Norwegian Commission for Freedom of Expression.

Research on disinformation and resilience to this should be closely linked to studies on public engagement, freedom of expression and the climate of expression, in line with OECD recommendations on safeguarding information integrity.108 Reducing vulnerability to disinformation requires individuals to feel connected to the broader public sphere and that their voice is heard. However, open and enlightened public discourse requires resilience to disinformation and a space for expression that is both broad and perceived as such.

The Norwegian Government will consider supporting the establishment of a research centre to monitor the framework conditions for freedom of expression over time. A key focus of the centre will be to track developments in public discourse, including polarisation and the spread of disinformation. The centre will also actively disseminate findings to keep the public informed about the status of public discourse.

This measure forms part of the broader strategy to promote open and enlightened public discourse.

5.4.2 Increase the reach of evidence-based research by expanding the national support scheme for Norwegian language open-access journals in the humanities and social sciences

Open access to and availability of peer-reviewed research is crucial for open and enlightened public discourse and facilitates the use of research in society and public administration. In Norway, the national support scheme for Norwegian language open-access journals in the humanities and social sciences helps ensure that research published in Norwegian is freely available to all, thereby increasing the reach of evidence-based research in public discourse. In Report to the Storting no. 14 (2024–2025) Reliable Knowledge in an Uncertain World, the Norwegian Government announced plans to expand the scheme to additional disciplines, ensuring broader public access to high-quality research in Norwegian.

5.4.3 Establish one or more centres for research on the societal impacts of AI

There is a need to strengthen research on the societal risks associated with AI and on strategies for managing these risks.

The Research Council of Norway has announced a call for proposals to establish four to six research centres for AI. The centres will have an interdisciplinary approach and facilitate collaboration across sectors and institutions. Collectively, they will focus on three main areas: societal impacts, technology and innovation.

The centre(s) focusing on the societal impacts of AI will seek to identify and address key challenges and dilemmas, while also exploring the potential opportunities of AI technology for individuals and society. Examples include the ways in which AI influences democracy, civic participation, trust, social cohesion and the welfare state.

5.4.4 Improve understanding of the spread of disinformation through video gaming and other online subcultures

The Norwegian Government’s video gaming strategy for 2024–2026 examines the challenges of the propagation of extremist propaganda on gaming platforms. The strategy’s measures aim to promote an inclusive, safe and accessible gaming culture. A national centre of expertise on video gaming and the gaming culture has been established at the Norwegian Film Institute. The centre seeks to bring together expertise on challenges within the gaming culture, advance knowledge and expertise in the field, and highlight the positive aspects and opportunities that the gaming culture offers.

In light of the challenges, however, there is still a need for more knowledge on the propagation of disinformation through video gaming and other online subcultures.

The Norwegian Government will

• explore the potential for establishing a research centre for long-term research on public discourse
• increase the reach of evidence-based research by expanding the national support scheme for Norwegian language open-access journals in the humanities and social sciences
• establish one or more research centres to investigate the societal impacts of AI
• improve understanding of the spread of disinformation through video gaming and other online subcultures